## **Learning Outcomes**

After reading this article, you will be able to identify, aggregate, and assess misstatements detected during an audit, explain procedures around communicating and correcting misstatements, understand the significance of uncorrected misstatements, and outline the auditor’s use and evaluation of written representations. You will recognise how these processes affect the auditor’s opinion and reporting responsibilities in accordance with ISA 450 and ISA 580.

## **ACCA Audit and Assurance (AA) Syllabus**

For ACCA Audit and Assurance (AA), you are required to understand the detailed approach to misstatements, how they are evaluated and communicated, and the role of written representations as audit evidence. This article addresses key syllabus points for revision:

- Define and describe audit misstatements, including factual, judgmental, and projected errors.
- Summarise the auditor’s obligations for accumulating, aggregating, and evaluating misstatements found during the audit (ISA 450).
- Explain the communication of misstatements to management and the auditor’s responsibilities when misstatements are not corrected.
- Assess the impact of uncorrected misstatements on the audit opinion.
- Explain the purpose, limitations, and reliability of written representations (ISA 580).
- Discuss when written representations are appropriate, and what to do if management refuses to provide them.

## **Test Your Knowledge**

_Attempt these questions before reading this article. If you find some difficult or cannot remember the answers, remember to look more closely at that area during your revision._

1. Define the three types of misstatements that may be identified during an audit and briefly describe each.
2. Explain why it is important to aggregate misstatements rather than considering errors individually.
3. True or false? Written representations from management can fully substitute for sufficient other forms of audit evidence.
4. If management refuses to correct a material misstatement, what should the auditor do?
5. What steps should an auditor take if management will not sign the requested written representation letter?

## **Introduction**

Audit evidence may reveal errors or uncertainties in the financial statements—these are referred to as misstatements. ISA 450 requires auditors to accumulate all misstatements identified, assess their combined effect on the financial statements, and determine the implications of uncorrected misstatements. The auditor must aggregate both factual and subjective errors and evaluate whether they are material, individually or in aggregate, before forming an opinion.

> **Key Term: misstatement**
> A difference between the reported amount, classification, presentation, or disclosure of a financial statement item and the required amount, classification, presentation, or disclosure as per the reporting framework. Misstatements can arise from error or fraud.

### Types of misstatements

ISA 450 describes three categories:

> **Key Term: factual misstatement**
> An error where there is no doubt—a clear mistake in amounts or disclosures found during audit testing.
>
> **Key Term: judgmental misstatement**
> Differences arising from management’s estimates or selection of accounting policies that the auditor considers unreasonable, or from inappropriate application of standards.
>
> **Key Term: projected misstatement**
> The auditor’s best estimate of misstatements in a population, projected from identified errors in a sample.

All misstatements, except those clearly trivial, should be included in the auditor’s record.

### Why aggregate misstatements?

It is not sufficient to review each identified misstatement in isolation. Small errors, while immaterial on their own, may become material when combined. The auditor aggregates all errors from the entire audit to judge their total effect on the financial statements.

> **Key Term: aggregation of misstatements**
> The process of combining all identified uncorrected errors to assess whether they are material to the financial statements as a whole.

## Aggregation and Evaluation Procedures

ISA 450 prescribes that auditors must:

- Accumulate all identified misstatements unless clearly trivial.
- Aggregate uncorrected misstatements from all audit areas.
- Reassess materiality in light of findings, especially if the nature or number of misstatements suggests higher risk.
- Communicate all non-trivial misstatements to management promptly and request correction.
- Consider management’s reasons for not correcting misstatements.

The auditor assesses whether aggregated uncorrected misstatements are material, factoring in both the size and the nature of the items and the effect of prior period uncorrected errors on current figures.

### **Worked Example 1.1**

**During testing, the auditor discovers three errors: (A) an overstatement of sales by \$6,000, (B) a misclassification of \$3,000 between expenses, and (C) an understatement of inventory by \$4,000. Materiality for the audit is set at \$10,000. Should the auditor require correction?**

> **Answer:**  
> The aggregate of misstatements is \$13,000 (\$6,000 + \$3,000 + \$4,000). Since the combined effect exceeds materiality, the auditor should ask management to correct all three errors, even though none individually (except A) exceeds \$10,000.

## Communicating and Correcting Misstatements

Auditors must inform management about all non-trivial misstatements and invite correction. Management’s response should be documented. When misstatements are not revised, auditors must reconsider materiality and assess if the uncorrected errors, individually or in total, would affect the true and fair presentation of the financial statements.

> **Key Term: uncorrected misstatement**
> An identified misstatement that has not been adjusted or removed by management by the end of the audit.
>
> **Key Term: performance materiality**
> The amount set by the auditor at less than overall materiality to reduce to an appropriately low level the probability that the sum of uncorrected and undetected misstatements exceeds overall materiality.

### **Worked Example 1.2**

**If total uncorrected misstatements below overall materiality but above performance materiality thresholds are ignored, what risk could arise?**

> **Answer:**  
> There is a risk that, even if the overall materiality for the financial statements is not breached, the performance materiality at the account or assertion level may be exceeded, leading to material departures in disclosures or specific balances.

### **Exam Warning**

> Overlooking the cumulative impact of small errors is a frequent exam pitfall. Always aggregate all identified misstatements before evaluating their significance.

## Impact of Uncorrected Misstatements on the Audit Opinion

If, after aggregation, uncorrected misstatements are material, the auditor must modify the audit opinion. The type of opinion (qualified or adverse) depends on whether the effect is material but not pervasive or both material and pervasive. If only individual, immaterial misstatements remain uncorrected, an unmodified opinion may still be issued.

> **Key Term: material misstatement**
> A misstatement (or sum of misstatements) that could reasonably be expected to influence the economic decisions of users made using the financial statements.

## Written Representations

Written representations, as outlined in ISA 580, are statements from management confirming certain matters or supporting other audit evidence when other sources of evidence are insufficient. They do not, on their own, provide sufficient appropriate evidence for any assertion where more reliable sources exist.

> **Key Term: written representation**
> A written statement by management provided to the auditor, confirming their responsibilities and supporting other audit evidence, typically dated as of the auditor’s report.

Written representations may be requested for:

- Confirmation that all records and information have been provided.
- Disclosure of all known instances of fraud and non-compliance with laws and regulations.
- Support for material estimates and judgments made by management.

If management refuses to provide a requested written representation, the auditor should consider this a limitation on the scope of the audit, possibly resulting in a qualified opinion or disclaimer.

### **Worked Example 1.3**

**Management refuses to sign a written representation relating to the completeness of contingent liabilities. What should the auditor do?**

> **Answer:**  
> The auditor must consider if this indicates possible management integrity issues or incomplete disclosure. The refusal usually means the auditor cannot obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence and must qualify the opinion or issue a disclaimer, depending on the significance of the matter.

## **Summary**

- Auditors must accumulate and aggregate all identified misstatements, considering both their amount and nature.
- All non-trivial errors are to be communicated and correction should be requested.
- Materiality must be revisited in light of total uncorrected misstatements.
- If aggregate uncorrected misstatements are material, a modified opinion is required in the auditor’s report.
- Written representations supplement, but do not replace, other audit evidence. If management refuses to provide essential written representations, it constitutes a limitation on scope.

## **Key Point Checklist**

_This article has covered the following key knowledge points:_

- Define misstatement (factual, judgmental, projected) and explain how errors may arise.
- Describe the aggregation and evaluation process for audit misstatements under ISA 450.
- Explain the procedure for communicating and correcting misstatements and the consequences of uncorrected errors.
- Summarise how uncorrected misstatements influence the audit opinion.
- Describe the purpose, content, and limitations of written representations and their use in the audit.
- Outline auditor actions if management refuses to provide, or signs an incomplete, written representation.

## **Key Terms and Concepts**

- misstatement
- factual misstatement
- judgmental misstatement
- projected misstatement
- aggregation of misstatements
- uncorrected misstatement
- performance materiality
- material misstatement
- written representation

Misstatements and written representations - Aggregation and evaluation of misstatements (ISA 450)