## **Learning Outcomes**

After reading this article, you will be able to state and apply the five fundamental principles of professional ethics for accountants. You will be able to identify and explain categories of threat that may compromise compliance, such as self-interest or familiarity. You will know how to evaluate threats and outline appropriate safeguards. This will enable you to approach ACCA exam scenarios with clarity and accuracy when ethical issues are tested.

## **ACCA Audit and Assurance (AA) Syllabus**

For ACCA Audit and Assurance (AA), you are required to understand both the principles and practical application of professional ethics in audit and assurance engagements. The syllabus requires you to:

- Define and apply fundamental ethical principles: integrity, objectivity, professional competence and due care, confidentiality, and professional behaviour (ACCA Code of Ethics and Conduct, Section 110).
- Identify, describe and analyse threats to ethical principles: self-interest, self-review, advocacy, familiarity, intimidation.
- Explain and apply the conceptual framework for ethical decision-making, including evaluating threats and applying safeguards.
- Discuss the responsibility of auditors in relation to independence, conflicts of interest, and confidentiality.
- Recognise professional and disciplinary consequences for breaches of the ethical code.

## **Test Your Knowledge**

_Attempt these questions before reading this article. If you find some difficult or cannot remember the answers, remember to look more closely at that area during your revision._

1. List the five fundamental principles of professional ethics required by ACCA.
2. Provide one example for each of the following threat categories: self-interest, self-review, and familiarity.
3. Which of the following is not a fundamental ethical principle: professional behaviour, objectivity, advocacy, confidentiality?
4. Why is independence essential for an external auditor, and how does it relate to the expectation of objectivity?
5. How should an audit firm respond if a significant threat to ethical principles cannot be managed with safeguards?

## **Introduction**

Ethical behaviour is mandatory for professional accountants and auditors. Assurance providers must behave—and be seen to behave—in a manner the public can trust. The ACCA Code of Ethics and Conduct sets out the principles and framework all members must apply in professional work, with the aim of serving the public interest and supporting confidence in audit and assurance engagements.

> **Key Term: ethics**
> The set of moral principles and guidance that govern the behaviour and decision-making of individuals and organisations in their professional conduct.

## Fundamental Principles of Professional Ethics

Professional accountants must comply with five fundamental principles at all times:

1. **Integrity:** Being honest and straightforward in all professional and business relationships.
2. **Objectivity:** Avoiding bias, conflict of interest, or undue influence so that decisions are made impartially.
3. **Professional competence and due care:** Attaining and maintaining appropriate professional knowledge and skills to competently serve clients and employers.
4. **Confidentiality:** Respecting the confidentiality of information acquired through professional relationships and not disclosing it without proper authority, unless there is a legal or professional right or duty to do so.
5. **Professional behaviour:** Complying with laws and regulations and avoiding any action that discredits the profession.

> **Key Term: integrity**
> Acting honestly and fairly in all professional and business relationships.
>
> **Key Term: objectivity**
> Not allowing bias, conflict of interest, or undue influence of others to override professional judgments.
>
> **Key Term: professional competence and due care**
> Maintaining the knowledge and skill to perform work diligently to the appropriate technical and professional standards.
>
> **Key Term: confidentiality**
> Protecting client or employer information acquired through business relationships unless authorised or required by law to disclose.
>
> **Key Term: professional behaviour**
> Observing relevant laws and regulations and avoiding conduct that affects the good standing of the profession.

### Key responsibilities

Complying with the ethical code is an ongoing obligation. Accountants must exercise professional judgement in all situations and consider the interests of the public, not just their own interests or those of their employer or client.

### The conceptual framework

Both the ACCA Code and international guidance adopt a principles-based (not rules-based) approach. Accountants apply the five principles and use the conceptual framework to identify, evaluate and address threats. Rules are issued for circumstances common across the profession, but ethical dilemmas require the accountant to exercise judgement considering the specific facts.

## Categories of Threat to Fundamental Principles

Threats are circumstances or relationships that could compromise compliance with the fundamental principles.

The main categories are:

> **Key Term: self-interest threat**
> The risk that a financial or other personal interest will improperly influence professional judgment or behaviour.
>
> **Key Term: self-review threat**
> The risk that a professional will not appropriately evaluate the results of previous judgments or services for the same client.
>
> **Key Term: advocacy threat**
> The risk of promoting a client’s or employer’s position to the extent that objectivity, or the perception of objectivity, is compromised.
>
> **Key Term: familiarity threat**
> The risk that, due to a close relationship, a professional becomes too sympathetic to the interests of a client or loses professional scepticism.
>
> **Key Term: intimidation threat**
> The risk that a member will be deterred from acting objectively by actual or perceived pressures from others.

### Examples of threats

- **Self-interest:** Holding shares in an audit client, dependence on fees from one client, or overdue fees owed.
- **Self-review:** The auditor prepares the accounts, then audits those same accounts.
- **Advocacy:** Representing a client in negotiations with third parties or in disputes with tax authorities.
- **Familiarity:** Long association with the same client, close relationships or employment moves between the firm and the client.
- **Intimidation:** Threats of legal action, undue influence from management, or pressure to ignore audit issues.

### **Worked Example 1.1**

**An audit senior has worked on the audit of the same client for eight years and has recently become personal friends with the finance director. What threat category arises, and what principle is at risk?**

> **Answer:** This situation creates a familiarity threat, since the long association and personal relationship may compromise the auditor’s objectivity—or be perceived to by third parties.

## Evaluating Threats and Applying Safeguards

If a threat to the fundamental principles is identified, the professional accountant must assess:

- The nature and significance of the threat.
- Whether a safeguard can reduce it to an acceptable level.

> **Key Term: safeguard**
> An action or measure that eliminates a threat or reduces it to an acceptable level.

Safeguards may include:

- Removing the individual from the team,
- Rotation of senior staff,
- Independent review of work,
- Declining or terminating the engagement.

If a threat remains unacceptably high, the professional or firm must refuse or discontinue the assignment.

### **Worked Example 1.2**

**A firm is asked to provide both internal audit and external audit services to a listed company. What are the likely threats, and what safeguard could be effective?**

> **Answer:** This would create a self-review threat (auditing their own internal audit work) and possibly an advocacy threat if recommendations are strongly promoted. A safeguard would be to refuse the additional service or use separate teams for each service with proper review and disclosure.

### Common Threat Scenarios

- **Fee dependency**: When the fees from one client are a significant proportion of firm income. The firm should consider reducing reliance, engaging independent reviewer(s), or disengaging if the threat remains high.
- **Gifts and hospitality**: Only allowed if clearly trivial and inconsequential. Significant or frequent gifts are prohibited as they may compromise or be seen to compromise objectivity.

### **Exam Warning**

> In the exam, do not confuse _familiarity threat_ (long relationship or close connection) with _self-interest threat_ (personal benefit such as fee dependence or direct ownership).

## Independence and Conflicts of Interest

Independence is especially critical for auditors. Both "independence in mind" (actual objectivity) and "independence in appearance" (as viewed by a reasonable observer) are required.

> **Key Term: independence**
> The ability to act with integrity and objectivity without being affected by influences that may compromise professional judgement, including the perception by third parties.

If a conflict of interest exists—such as performing assurance work for two competing clients—the firm must disclose the conflict, seek consent, and implement procedures (such as separate teams, confidentiality arrangements, or, if necessary, decline the work).

### **Worked Example 1.3**

**An audit firm prepares the tax computation for their audit client. Which threats are created, and what should the firm consider to maintain ethical compliance?**

> **Answer:** This creates both a self-review threat (working on material that will be audited) and potentially a self-interest threat (if the service is a significant fee). The firm should assess the significance of these threats and apply safeguards—such as assigning different staff, obtaining independent review, or refraining from preparing complex or judgmental tax calculations for audit clients altogether.

## Consequences of Breaches

Non-compliance with the Code can result in professional disciplinary action, including fines, suspension or removal from membership, financial penalties, public censure and loss of practising rights.

Accountants must also consider the effect of ethical breaches on their reputation and the potential legal consequences where breaches of law or regulation also occur.

### **Revision Tip**

> When answering ACCA questions, state the ethical principle at risk, categorise the threat, and recommend a relevant safeguard. Avoid vague references—be specific about the nature and source of the threat.

## **Summary**

Professional accountants must always comply with the five fundamental principles of ethics. The ethical framework requires practitioners to identify, evaluate and address threats to these principles, including self-interest, self-review, advocacy, familiarity, and intimidation. Appropriate safeguards must be put in place to mitigate risks to an acceptable level, with independence especially critical in audit and assurance. Where threats cannot be managed, the engagement must not be accepted or continued.

## **Key Point Checklist**

_This article has covered the following key knowledge points:_

- State and explain the five fundamental principles of professional ethics.
- Identify and describe the main threat categories: self-interest, self-review, advocacy, familiarity, intimidation.
- Apply the conceptual framework to evaluate threats and determine appropriate safeguards.
- Explain the significance of independence for assurance engagements.
- Discuss auditor actions when a threat cannot be managed to an acceptable level.
- Summarise the consequences of breaches of ethical principles.

## **Key Terms and Concepts**

- ethics
- integrity
- objectivity
- professional competence and due care
- confidentiality
- professional behaviour
- self-interest threat
- self-review threat
- advocacy threat
- familiarity threat
- intimidation threat
- safeguard
- independence

Professional ethics and conduct - Fundamental principles and threat categories