## **Learning Outcomes**

After reading this article, you will be able to explain the principles of economic profit and value-based measures, describe how these methods differ from traditional accounting metrics, and apply basic value-based performance calculations. You should also be able to compare key value-based frameworks and recognise their relevance for performance appraisal and company valuation decisions.

## **ACCA Advanced Financial Management (AFM) Syllabus**

For ACCA Advanced Financial Management (AFM), you are required to understand value-based approaches for measuring and appraising company performance and valuation. This includes application and comparison of traditional and modern value-based models, and their role in enhancing shareholder wealth. Relevant syllabus areas include:

- The use of economic profit and value-based performance indicators in business valuation and performance management
- Calculation and interpretation of measures such as Economic Value Added (EVA) and residual income
- Understanding how economic profit aligns manager behaviour with shareholder value
- Comparison of traditional accounting measures with value-based methods
- Critical assessment of the strengths and limitations of value-based frameworks

## **Test Your Knowledge**

_Attempt these questions before reading this article. If you find some difficult or cannot remember the answers, remember to look more closely at that area during your revision._

1. What is the primary difference between economic profit (such as EVA) and traditional profit measures?
2. Which of the following formulae best describes economic profit?
   a) Net profit after tax + cost of capital charge  
   b) Net profit after tax – cost of capital charge  
   c) Net profit after tax × cost of capital  
   d) Net profit after tax ÷ cost of capital
3. True or false? Economic profit takes account of the full cost of all capital invested in the business.
4. Name two value-based frameworks commonly used to assess company performance for shareholder value creation.
5. A company reports a profit after tax of \$8 million, invested capital of \$60 million, and a weighted average cost of capital (WACC) of 10%. Calculate its economic profit (EVA).

## **Introduction**

Value-based measures seek to provide a more accurate assessment of whether a company is genuinely creating shareholder value, going beyond traditional accounting profit. Economic profit frameworks, such as residual income and Economic Value Added (EVA), adjust for the opportunity cost of the capital invested. This approach helps to better align managerial actions with shareholder wealth maximisation and is increasingly favoured for performance appraisal, valuation, and executive reward systems.

> **Key Term: economic profit**
> Profit remaining after deducting a capital charge from operating profit, reflecting the total cost of both equity and debt capital employed.
>
> **Key Term: value-based measure**
> A performance metric that evaluates company or manager effectiveness by linking outcomes to the creation of shareholder value, usually by considering both net operating profit and the actual cost of capital.

## **Traditional Profit Measures vs Economic Profit**

Traditional accounting measures (such as profit after tax, EPS, and ROCE) assess performance based on reported profits and ignore the full cost of capital. They do not show whether value is being created for shareholders above their required return.

By contrast, economic profit methods deduct a capital charge—an estimate of the return required by all providers of capital—from net operating profit after tax (NOPAT). If economic profit is positive, the company is creating value for its shareholders; if negative, value is being destroyed.

### Calculating Economic Profit

The core formula for economic profit is:

Economic Profit = NOPAT – (Invested Capital × Cost of Capital)
Where:

- NOPAT = Net Operating Profit After Tax
- Invested Capital = amount of capital invested in the business (equity + debt)
- Cost of Capital = typically the weighted average cost of capital (WACC)

> **Key Term: invested capital**
> The total amount of funds employed in the business from both equity and debt holders, used to generate operating profits.

## **Economic Value Added (EVA)**

EVA is one of the most widely known and used economic profit measures.

- EVA = NOPAT – (Invested Capital × WACC)

EVA takes accounting profit and makes specific adjustments so that it more closely reflects true economic performance. Common adjustments include capitalising major research and development expenses and eliminating accounting distortions.

Advantages of EVA:

- Makes managers aware of the true cost of capital
- Encourages investment decisions that add value
- Useful for performance-based remuneration and benchmarking

> **Key Term: Economic Value Added (EVA)**
> A value-based performance measure that quantifies the value created (or destroyed) by management after covering the full cost of capital invested in business operations.

## **Residual Income Model**

Residual Income (RI) uses a similar concept but is often based directly on accounting profits before weighted cost of capital is considered, sometimes using a target rate of return instead of WACC.

- RI = Net income – (Equity capital × Required return)

While RI is mainly used for divisional performance within businesses, EVA is more common for whole-company analysis.

> **Key Term: residual income**
> Profit remaining after deducting an equity capital charge from net earnings, showing surplus earned above shareholders’ required return.

## **Link Between Economic Profit and Shareholder Value**

Economic profit bridges accounting results with the concept of value creation. A positive EVA or RI means that, after rewarding all providers of finance at market rates, there is surplus value left for shareholders. Repeated negative economic profit signals value destruction, even if accounting profits are positive.

## **Performance Metrics and Value-Based Management**

Value-based measures are used for:

- Performance appraisal (e.g., benchmarking managers or units)
- Executive remuneration schemes
- Capital investment decision-making
- Communication with investors and markets

They help resolve agency problems by aligning managerial incentives with shareholder objectives.

### **Worked Example 1.1**

A company has invested capital of \$50 million, a WACC of 8%, and generates net operating profit after tax (NOPAT) of \$5 million. Calculate the EVA.

> **Answer:**  
> EVA = NOPAT – (Invested Capital × WACC) = \$5m – (\$50m × 8%) = \$5m – \$4m = \$1m.  
> A positive EVA indicates \$1 million of value created for shareholders above their required return.

### **Worked Example 1.2**

The Beta Division of ZYX plc reports accounting profit after tax of \$3.5 million. The division’s invested equity capital is \$15 million. Management requires a 12% return on equity. What is the division's residual income?

> **Answer:**  
> RI = Net income – (Equity capital × Required return)  
> RI = \$3.5m – (\$15m × 12%) = \$3.5m – \$1.8m = \$1.7m residual income.

## **Limitations of Value-Based Measures**

- Need for numerous adjustments to accounting profit for a true economic picture
- Potential subjectivity in capital charge determination
- May not fully capture longer-term value creation in rapidly changing industries

### **Exam Warning**

> Some ACCA questions will require you to clearly distinguish between accounting profit and value-based profit such as EVA. Do not confuse WACC (used for economic profit) with cost of debt or cost of equity alone.

### **Revision Tip**

> Focus on understanding how to calculate economic profit, its role in performance measurement, and how it corrects for limitations of traditional accounting metrics.

## **Summary**

Economic profit and value-based measures focus objectively on value creation by considering both the operating profit and the full cost of capital invested in the business. By using frameworks such as EVA and residual income, financial managers and exam candidates can assess whether the company—and its divisions—are delivering genuine wealth to shareholders, beyond simple profit figures.

## **Key Point Checklist**

_This article has covered the following key knowledge points:_

- Explain the concept of economic profit and its calculation
- Identify the adjustments needed to convert accounting profit to economic profit
- Calculate Economic Value Added (EVA) and residual income
- Compare traditional profit measures with value-based measures
- Assess how value-based metrics guide performance appraisal and valuation
- Recognise the limitations of economic profit frameworks

## **Key Terms and Concepts**

- economic profit
- value-based measure
- invested capital
- Economic Value Added (EVA)
- residual income

Valuation approaches - Economic profit and value-based measures