## **Learning Outcomes**

After reading this article, you will be able to explain the impact of taxation, inflation, and changes in working capital on discounted cash flow (DCF) project appraisals. You will be able to adjust cash flows correctly for these factors, understand their effect on investment appraisal outcomes, and identify common errors in ACCA APM exam scenarios.

## **ACCA Advanced Performance Management (APM) Syllabus**

For ACCA Advanced Performance Management (APM), you are required to understand how key technical complexities influence DCF-based investment appraisal techniques. Focus your revision on:

- Recognising and calculating the effects of taxation in discounted cash flow analysis
- Adjusting project cash flows for inflation within DCF techniques
- Incorporating changes in working capital into project cash flows and recognising timing differences
- Identifying and evaluating the impact of these complexities on project evaluation decisions
- Addressing how incorrect handling of these factors leads to misleading results in project appraisal

## **Test Your Knowledge**

_Attempt these questions before reading this article. If you find some difficult or cannot remember the answers, remember to look more closely at that area during your revision._

1. Which of the following statements is correct regarding the treatment of taxation in DCF project appraisal?
   a) Include tax allowable depreciation in the initial investment cash outflow.
   b) Project cash flows should be adjusted for tax only at the end of a project's life.
   c) Cash flows should include the tax effects in each year they are incurred.
   d) Exclude taxation if after-tax discount rates are used.

2. A manufacturing investment requires \$1,000,000 of working capital at outlay, which is fully recovered in the final year. What is the present value impact of including this in your DCF calculation?

3. True or false? When inflation is ignored in both cash flows and discount rate, the NPV calculation will always remain accurate.

4. Briefly explain how increasing general inflation affects the real value of future project cash inflows.

5. List the three major complexities that must be adjusted for in project DCF appraisals.

## **Introduction**

Discounted cash flow (DCF) analysis is the principal tool for long-term investment appraisal in business. However, in real investment scenarios, important complexities—specifically taxation, inflation, and working capital movements—can significantly change a project's net present value or internal rate of return if not handled correctly.

This article explains how and why taxes, inflation, and working capital are incorporated into DCF models, summarising the practical adjustments needed for exam purposes. It also highlights frequent errors to avoid and provides clear worked examples aligned to current ACCA APM requirements.

> **Key Term: discounted cash flow (DCF)**
> The process of valuing a project by discounting expected future cash inflows and outflows to their present value using a required rate of return.

## **TAXATION IN DCF APPRAISAL**

In most real-world investments, project returns are assessed after tax, as this represents the cash available to shareholders. This means DCF appraisals should reflect tax liabilities on profits and any tax allowances or reliefs available.

### Key adjustments for taxation

- Deduct tax payments from project cash flows in the period when tax is actually paid
- Include tax savings from allowable depreciation (capital allowances), recognising the timing of these benefits
- Use after-tax cash flows with a pre-tax discount rate, or match an after-tax rate consistently with after-tax flows

> **Key Term: capital allowance**
> A tax deduction permitted for depreciable capital expenditure. Tax savings from such allowances reduce the project's tax liability.

### **Worked Example 1.1**

A business invests \$400,000 in new machinery with a four-year life. The project yields \$150,000 annual earnings before depreciation and tax. Tax at 25% is paid one year in arrears. The machinery qualifies for straight-line capital allowances over four years with zero residual value.

**Required:** Calculate the annual tax cash flows for DCF purposes in year 1.

> **Answer:**
> Year 1 taxable profit before tax is \$150,000 minus capital allowance (\$400,000 / 4 = \$100,000) = \$50,000. Tax at 25% = \$12,500. Tax is payable one year later, so no cash outflow for tax in year 1; \$12,500 is paid in year 2. For DCF, deduct tax outflows in the year paid, not in the year accrued.

### **Exam Warning: Taxation**

> In ACCA APM and FM exams, students often deduct capital investment net of tax at time 0, incorrectly assuming immediate tax relief. Tax savings from capital allowances are typically received over the asset's useful economic life. Always check timing.

## **INFLATION AND CASH FLOW ADJUSTMENTS**

Projects spanning several years are affected by inflation, which erodes real purchasing power. Both cash flows and discount rates must be aligned either as 'nominal' (money) values or 'real' (constant price) terms.

### Key principles

- If cash flows are inflated (‘money terms’), discount at a nominal (money) discount rate.
- If cash flows are in real (constant price) terms, discount at a real rate (calculated using the Fisher formula).
- Apply specific rates of inflation to project revenues and costs as per scenario.
- Tax deductibility often relates to nominal, not real, cash flows.

> **Key Term: nominal cash flows**
> Cash flows that include expected inflation, expressed at the values expected when receipts or payments occur.
>
> **Key Term: real cash flows**
> Cash flows adjusted to remove the effects of expected inflation, representing constant purchasing power.

### **Worked Example 1.2**

A project expects to generate annual revenue of \$50,000 for four years. Selling prices are expected to increase with 3% annual inflation. The real discount rate is 6%, and expected inflation averages 3%. Calculate the present value of the year 3 revenue.

> **Answer:**
> Year 3 forecast price = \$50,000 × 1.03³ = \$54,635. Discount at the nominal rate: (1.06 × 1.03) – 1 ≈ 9.18%. PV = \$54,635 / (1.0918³) ≈ \$41,032. Always inflate cash flows if using a nominal rate.

### **Revision Tip**

> When inflation is material, always match nominal cash flows with a nominal discount rate and real cash flows with a real rate. Mixing methods gives misleading NPVs.

## **WORKING CAPITAL EFFECTS IN DCF**

Many projects require additional current assets (such as inventory or receivables) at the outset and may release them at the end. These cash flows must be included at the correct time in the DCF analysis.

### How to adjust

- Recognise the initial outlay on working capital at time 0 (usually a cash outflow)
- Include any increases in working capital as additional outflows in each year they occur
- Include the return of working capital as an inflow in the project's final year

> **Key Term: working capital**
> The funds tied up in the net level of current assets (inventory, receivables minus payables) required to operate a project.

### **Worked Example 1.3**

A new service requires an upfront working capital investment of \$60,000 in year 0, increasing by \$10,000 in year 1, and releasing the total balance at the end of year 3. What are the relevant working capital cash flows for your DCF calculation?

> **Answer:**
> Year 0: \$60,000 outflow; Year 1: \$10,000 outflow; Year 3: \$70,000 inflow. Each increase is a cash outflow, but the accumulated balance is returned as a benefit at the project’s end.

### **Exam Warning: Working Capital**

> A common APM exam error is to ignore the return of working capital at the end of a project. Unless specified otherwise, assume working capital will be fully recovered and include it as a terminal inflow.

## **Summary**

For DCF project appraisals, correct treatment of taxation, adjustment for inflation, and careful inclusion of working capital flows is essential. Ignoring or misapplying these can distort the NPV and lead to poor decision-making. All three factors affect the timing and value of relevant cash flows.

## **Key Point Checklist**

_This article has covered the following key knowledge points:_

- Explain the correct treatment of taxation in DCF project appraisals
- Adjust project cash flows for inflation and match with appropriate discount rates
- Identify when to use nominal versus real cash flows and discount rates
- Incorporate changes in working capital into project DCF calculations, including recovery
- Recognise the impact of these complexities on NPV and investment decisions
- Avoid common mistakes in ACCA APM DCF questions relating to these areas

## **Key Terms and Concepts**

- discounted cash flow (DCF)
- capital allowance
- nominal cash flows
- real cash flows
- working capital

DCF techniques and complexities - Taxation inflation and working capital effects