## **Learning Outcomes**

After studying this article, you will be able to state the types of audit opinion, distinguish between unmodified and modified opinions, and decide when each should be issued. You will understand the concepts of materiality and pervasiveness, be able to apply decision rules to select the appropriate opinion, and describe the main report features required in each case.

## **ACCA Foundations in Audit (FAU) Syllabus**

For ACCA Foundations in Audit (FAU), you are required to understand the auditor’s reporting duties and decision-making for types of opinion. When revising this topic, focus on:

- The required structure and content of the independent auditor's report
- The meaning and criteria for unmodified and modified opinions
- The factors leading to qualified, adverse, and disclaimer opinions
- The role of materiality and pervasiveness in forming the audit report
- The circumstances where the auditor cannot provide sufficient evidence

## **Test Your Knowledge**

_Attempt these questions before reading this article. If you find some difficult or cannot remember the answers, remember to look more closely at that area during your revision._

1. What type of opinion does an auditor issue when the financial statements are free from material misstatement?
2. Which type of opinion is given when the auditor cannot obtain sufficient appropriate evidence on a matter that is both material and pervasive?
3. True or false? An adverse opinion is appropriate if a material misstatement affects only a specific area of the financial statements, but the rest are reliable.
4. How is the term "pervasive" used in deciding audit opinion types?
5. What is the essential difference between a qualified and a disclaimer of opinion?

## **Introduction**

At the conclusion of an audit, the auditor must provide a written opinion addressed to the entity’s members. This opinion is the central outcome of the audit and communicates the auditor’s findings regarding whether the financial statements present a true and fair view. While most audits result in an unmodified opinion, there are circumstances where financial statement issues or evidence limitations require the auditor to modify their opinion. Selecting the correct opinion requires clear understanding of audit evidence, misstatements, materiality, and pervasiveness.

> **Key Term: audit opinion**
> The auditor’s formal conclusion, stated in the auditor’s report, on whether the financial statements show a true and fair view—or present fairly, in all material respects—in accordance with the applicable financial reporting framework.

## TYPES OF AUDIT OPINION

There are two main categories of audit opinion:

- **Unmodified opinion**: The “clean” opinion where the auditor is satisfied with the financial statements.
- **Modified opinions**: Used where there are issues such as material misstatements or an inability to obtain sufficient evidence.

### UNMODIFIED OPINION

An unmodified opinion (sometimes called a “clean” opinion) is given when the auditor concludes that the financial statements as a whole are free from material misstatement and sufficient appropriate evidence has been obtained.

> **Key Term: unmodified opinion**
> The standard audit opinion, confirming that the financial statements present a true and fair view (or are presented fairly, in all material respects).

## MODIFIED OPINIONS

When the auditor identifies a material misstatement or cannot obtain sufficient evidence, a modified opinion is required. There are three types of modified opinion:

- Qualified (or “except for”) opinion
- Adverse opinion
- Disclaimer of opinion

> **Key Term: modified opinion**
> A qualified, adverse, or disclaimer of opinion issued when the auditor identifies a material misstatement or cannot obtain enough evidence on a material matter.

## WHEN TO MODIFY THE OPINION

The auditor must consider two issues:

1. Is there a material misstatement (i.e., the financial statements are misstated), or is there an inability to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence?
2. Is the issue material only, or is it both material and pervasive?

> **Key Term: material misstatement**
> An error, omission, or inaccuracy in the financial statements, big enough to affect economic decisions of users.
>
> **Key Term: pervasive**
> A misstatement or lack of evidence that is not confined to specific elements or is so significant that it affects the financial statements as a whole.

### Qualified Opinion

A qualified opinion is issued when a matter is material but not pervasive—either because of a material misstatement or because of an inability to obtain sufficient appropriate evidence about one area. The auditor’s report will include the term “except for” to identify the specific matter.

> **Key Term: qualified opinion**
> The auditor’s opinion when the financial statements are fairly presented in all respects except for a specific material issue.

### Adverse Opinion

An adverse opinion is given when a material misstatement is so significant and pervasive that the financial statements as a whole do not present a true and fair view.

> **Key Term: adverse opinion**
> The opinion stating that the financial statements do not show a true and fair view, due to material and pervasive misstatements.

### Disclaimer of Opinion

A disclaimer is expressed when the auditor is unable to obtain sufficient evidence on a material and pervasive matter, so is unable to form an opinion at all.

> **Key Term: disclaimer of opinion**
> The opinion when the auditor cannot gather enough evidence about a material and pervasive matter, and so does not express any audit opinion.

## MATERIALITY AND PERVASIVENESS

Whether a modification is required—and what type—is determined by the concept of materiality and, if relevant, pervasiveness.

- If the issue is only material to a single area, but the rest of the financial statements remain reliable, a qualified opinion is given.
- If the misstatement or scope limitation is fundamental and affects more than specific areas, or the auditor cannot judge the overall reliability, then the issue is described as pervasive. In these instances, an adverse or disclaimer opinion is required.

## HOW TO DECIDE WHICH OPINION TO GIVE

The decision tree below summarises the types of audit opinion:

| Issue found by auditor                                     | Material, not pervasive | Material and pervasive |
| ---------------------------------------------------------- | ----------------------- | ---------------------- |
| Material misstatement (e.g., error in one area)            | Qualified (except for)  | Adverse                |
| Inability to obtain sufficient evidence (scope limitation) | Qualified (except for)  | Disclaimer of opinion  |

### **Worked Example 1.1**

Management refuses to write down inventory that is now obsolete. The inventory is significant, but all other balances are reasonable.

> **Answer:**
> There is a material misstatement affecting only a specific balance (inventory). A qualified opinion (“except for the effects of...”) should be given.

### **Worked Example 1.2**

Due to lost records, the auditor cannot obtain evidence for revenue, receivables, and inventory—all of which are significant.

> **Answer:**
> Here, the inability to get evidence is both material and pervasive, affecting multiple financial statement elements. The auditor must issue a disclaimer of opinion.

### **Worked Example 1.3**

The company’s financial statements exclude a required provision for a significant legal claim, affecting profit and several note disclosures. The effect is significant and impacts much of the financial statements.

> **Answer:**
> The misstatement is both material and pervasive. The correct opinion is adverse.

### **Exam Warning**

> Students often confuse adverse and disclaimer opinions. An adverse opinion is for material and pervasive misstatements; a disclaimer is used when there is a material and pervasive lack of evidence—the auditor cannot form an opinion at all.

## FORMAT AND CONTENT OF THE AUDITOR’S REPORT

All independent auditor’s reports must include:

- Title (using “Independent Auditor’s Report”)
- Addressee (typically the entity’s members/shareholders)
- Opinion section (clearly stating the audit opinion)
- Basis for Opinion section (explains the grounds for the auditor’s judgement)
- Management’s and auditor’s responsibilities
- Auditor’s signature, date, address

When a modified opinion is given, a separate “Basis for Qualified/Adverse/Disclaimer of Opinion” paragraph must state the reason for modification.

## **Summary**

Auditors provide an unmodified opinion when the financial statements are reliable and free from material misstatement. If there are issues—either a material misstatement or a lack of evidence—the auditor must modify the opinion. The decision between qualified, adverse, and disclaimer depends on materiality and pervasiveness. The auditor’s report must always communicate the key reason for any modification.

## **Key Point Checklist**

_This article has covered the following key knowledge points:_

- Difference between unmodified and modified audit opinions
- The criteria for qualified, adverse, and disclaimer opinions
- How materiality and pervasiveness affect reporting decisions
- Required content and structure of the auditor’s report
- Circumstances in which each opinion is given

## **Key Terms and Concepts**

- audit opinion
- unmodified opinion
- modified opinion
- material misstatement
- pervasive
- qualified opinion
- adverse opinion
- disclaimer of opinion

Independent Auditor’s Report - Type of opinion based on circumstances