## **Learning Outcomes**

After reading this article, you will be able to distinguish between consumer and commercial credit arrangements for ACCA FFM exams. You will identify core legal protections for consumers, explain the implications for businesses offering or seeking credit, outline relevant regulatory frameworks, and assess ethical standards expected in credit extension and collection. Practical scenarios will clarify the differences in obligations, risks, and safeguards for consumers versus businesses in credit transactions.

## **ACCA Foundations in Financial Management (FFM) Syllabus**

For ACCA Foundations in Financial Management (FFM), you are required to understand the legal and ethical principles that underpin credit transactions and their implications for both consumers and businesses. Revision should focus on:

- The distinction between consumer and commercial credit and their regulatory requirements
- Legal protections granted to consumer borrowers under national law (e.g., credit agreements, cooling-off periods, director’s duties)
- The lower level of statutory protection for commercial borrowers and the responsibilities of businesses providing or receiving credit
- Regulatory frameworks governing credit (e.g., the role of the Financial Conduct Authority in the UK)
- The importance of ethical conduct in credit assessment, contract terms, and debt collection

## **Test Your Knowledge**

_Attempt these questions before reading this article. If you find some difficult or cannot remember the answers, remember to look more closely at that area during your revision._

1. Which type of credit arrangement typically provides statutory cooling-off periods for borrowers?
   a) Commercial credit
   b) Consumer credit
   c) Trade credit
   d) Mortgage lending

2. True or false? Commercial borrowers have the same statutory rights as consumers to cancel a credit agreement shortly after signing.

3. Name one statutory requirement lenders must meet when providing consumer credit that is not mandatory in commercial credit arrangements.

4. Briefly explain an ethical risk associated with aggressive debt collection practices against consumers.

## **Introduction**

Credit is a common feature of modern business and personal finance, but the rights and duties of parties differ greatly depending on whether the borrower is a consumer or a commercial entity. Law and regulation grant consumers enhanced protection, while business borrowing is typically subject to contractual freedom and negotiation. Ethical standards are also increasingly scrutinised, especially in respect of lending, communication, and collection practices. This article summarises essential legal and ethical differences between consumer and commercial credit relevant for ACCA exam candidates.

## LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR CREDIT AGREEMENTS

Entering into a credit agreement generates enforceable rights and obligations. The legal treatment, however, differs sharply depending on who the borrower is and the credit’s purpose.

### Consumer Credit

In most national systems, a 'consumer' is an individual borrowing for personal use, not in connection with running a business. Consumers usually benefit from extensive statutory protections to counteract their weaker bargaining position and potential lack of financial sophistication.

> **Key Term: consumer credit**
> A regulated agreement where credit is provided for personal, not business, purposes, typically subject to statutory protections (e.g., minimum disclosures and cancellation rights).

Legal requirements for consumer credit providers may include:

- Written agreements with clear prescribed information (e.g., interest rates, costs)
- Cooling-off or cancellation periods, with specific procedures for withdrawal and refund
- Limitations on interest charges or penalty fees
- Disclosure of annual percentage rate (APR)
- Regulated advertising and marketing standards
- Oversight by regulatory authorities such as the Financial Conduct Authority (FCA) in the UK

### Commercial Credit

Commercial credit refers to credit extended to businesses, partnerships, or sole traders for commercial purposes. The law assumes that business operators are more knowledgeable and capable of negotiating terms.

> **Key Term: commercial credit**
> Credit provided to businesses or for business purposes, generally lacking statutory consumer-style protections and relying on contract law and industry norms.

For commercial borrowers, most terms—such as payment periods, interest, and charges—are set by contract, and there is no statutory right to cancel or cool off. Regulations on fairness and transparency are minimal compared to consumer deals. However, all businesses must comply with general contract law and certain sectoral regulations (e.g., anti-money laundering, lender licensing).

### Key Differences at a Glance

| Feature                         | Consumer Credit | Commercial Credit          |
| ------------------------------- | --------------- | -------------------------- |
| Statutory protection            | Extensive       | Limited                    |
| Regulator involved              | Yes (e.g., FCA) | Sometimes, depends on type |
| Written contract required       | Always          | Sometimes (by value/type)  |
| Cancellation/cooling-off rights | Usually         | Rare                       |
| Interest rate/fee caps          | Sometimes       | Uncommon                   |
| Disclosure duties               | Strict          | Minimal                    |
| Enforcement flexibility         | Limited         | Broad                      |

## REGULATORY OVERSIGHT AND DUTIES

Regulation of credit is aimed at discouraging unfair or predatory lending, especially for individuals.

> **Key Term: regulator**
> The official body responsible for supervising and enforcing standards for credit activities, e.g., the Financial Conduct Authority in the UK.

Credit providers must often register with the regulator, follow codes of practice, and resolve consumer complaints. Misconduct may attract fines, compensation orders, or criminal liability.

Commercial credit providers are generally subject only to contract law, though large facilities may require additional checks (e.g., for anti-money laundering).

## ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN CREDIT

Regardless of legal duties, finance professionals and businesses have a responsibility to act ethically throughout the credit lifecycle.

> **Key Term: ethical conduct**
> Acting in accordance with accepted standards of fairness, transparency, and social responsibility when extending or collecting credit.

Potential issues include:

- Transparent explanation of terms (avoiding small print traps)
- Accurate credit assessments to limit over-borrowing
- Treating vulnerable customers fairly
- Respecting borrower privacy
- Using proportionate and respectful collection methods

Failure can cause reputational harm and regulatory penalties.

### **Worked Example 1.1**

**Scenario:** A retail business offers instalment plans to individual buyers for electronics. The agreement is unclear about default charges and fails to disclose cancellation rights.

**Question:** Is the retail business in breach of consumer credit rules, and what might be the consequences?

> **Answer:**
> Yes. The business failed to provide prescribed information (such as cancellation rights and clear charges), likely breaching consumer credit law. The agreement could be unenforceable, and the regulator might impose fines or order compensation to affected consumers.

### **Worked Example 1.2**

**Scenario:** A supplier grants a trade customer 60-day credit on invoices. The agreement is not in writing and no statutory cooling-off period is offered.

**Question:** Does the customer have any statutory right to cancel or challenge the terms post-delivery?

> **Answer:**
> No. This is commercial credit. Absent contractual provisions, there is no legal right to cancel or cool off. Disputes are resolved under contract law, not consumer credit statutes.

## CONSEQUENCES OF NON-COMPLIANCE

For consumer credit, serious breaches may render agreements unenforceable, allow the consumer to recover funds, or trigger regulatory action. Commercial credit disputes are typically settled by negotiation or litigation; statutory penalty provisions are rare.

> **Key Term: enforceability**
> Whether a contract or term can be upheld by a court or regulator.

## ETHICAL RISKS AND BEST PRACTICE

Unethical behaviour in credit provision or collection can include misleading advertising, non-transparent pricing, aggressive collection, or discrimination. Professionals must ensure policies are fair, communications are clear, and all actions comply not just with the law but also with professional codes and social expectations.

### **Exam Warning**

> Be careful not to confuse consumer and commercial credit protections. Exam questions may include subtle distinctions, especially concerning cancellation rights and regulated disclosures.

### **Revision Tip**

> Always associate consumer credit with formal statutory protections, such as FCA oversight and cancellation periods, whereas commercial credit relies almost entirely on contractual freedom.

## **Summary**

When granting or receiving credit, it is essential to distinguish consumer credit—where law and regulation offer strict statutory protection and oversight—from commercial credit, which is governed mainly by contract. Ethical conduct reinforces good practice and helps organisations avoid legal, reputational, and financial risks.

## **Key Point Checklist**

_This article has covered the following key knowledge points:_

- The definition and key characteristics of consumer credit versus commercial credit
- Regulatory requirements and protections for consumer borrowers
- The contractual freedom and risks in commercial credit transactions
- The role of ethics in fair lending, transparent communication, and collections
- Regulatory oversight responsibilities and implications for non-compliance

## **Key Terms and Concepts**

- consumer credit
- commercial credit
- regulator
- ethical conduct
- enforceability

Legal and ethical considerations - Consumer vs commercial credit issues (overview)