## **Learning Outcomes**

After reading this article, you will be able to identify and explain the main types of receivables financing structures. You will learn to evaluate the direct and indirect costs of factoring and invoice discounting, interpret the effect of financing covenants on liquidity and business flexibility, and apply these principles to advise on the selection of appropriate receivables finance solutions for exam scenarios.

## **ACCA Financial Management (FM) Syllabus**

For ACCA Financial Management (FM), you are required to understand how receivables financing solutions affect working capital management, funding strategy, and financial risk. You should focus your revision on:

- The use of factoring and invoice discounting as techniques for managing accounts receivable
- Assessment and evaluation of direct and indirect costs associated with receivables finance arrangements
- The effect of covenants and conditions attached to receivables financing on company flexibility, liquidity, and risk
- The practical impacts of factoring and invoice discounting on financial reporting and ratios
- Recommendations for selecting suitable receivables finance methods in given business and exam scenarios

## **Test Your Knowledge**

_Attempt these questions before reading this article. If you find some difficult or cannot remember the answers, remember to look more closely at that area during your revision._

1. Which of the following is a direct cost of a factoring arrangement?
   a) Lower inventory holding
   b) Factoring commission fees
   c) Increased sales volume
   d) Reduction in overdue debts

2. A restrictive covenant in a receivables financing agreement is most likely to:
   a) Increase cash balances
   b) Limit further borrowing or asset sales
   c) Guarantee lower finance costs
   d) Accelerate revenue recognition

3. True or false? Invoice discounting allows receivables funding to be raised without customers being aware of the arrangement.

4. Briefly explain how factoring can impact a company's reported gearing ratio.

## **Introduction**

Receivables financing provides an alternative to traditional bank lending by unlocking cash from unpaid customer invoices. For businesses seeking improved cash flow or struggling with liquidity, factoring and invoice discounting can be attractive solutions—but each comes with costs and restrictions. Understanding these structures, including the direct and indirect financial impacts and the significance of financing covenants, is essential for effective financial management and critical for success in the ACCA FM exam.

> **Key Term: receivables financing**
> Receivables financing refers to methods by which businesses raise cash by using trade receivables as security—including selling (factoring) or lending against (invoice discounting) the value of unpaid customer invoices.

## **RECEIVABLES FINANCING STRUCTURES**

Receivables financing has two primary forms: factoring and invoice discounting. Both provide early access to cash, but differ in structure, method, and impact on business operations.

### Types of Receivables Financing

#### Factoring

Factoring involves selling a company's receivables (typically on a non-recourse or recourse basis) to a third party, known as a factor. The factor pays a proportion of invoice value immediately and often takes over credit control, collection, and sometimes assumes bad debt risk.

> **Key Term: factoring**
> A financial arrangement where a company sells its accounts receivable to a third party (the factor), who typically provides immediate cash, collects payments, and may take on credit risk.
>
> **Key Term: recourse and non-recourse factoring**
> Recourse factoring means the business retains the risk of bad debts; non-recourse factoring means the factor bears the credit risk if customers fail to pay.

#### Invoice Discounting

Invoice discounting is a confidential facility, where a business borrows against the value of its receivables but retains credit control and collection tasks. Customers usually remain unaware of any third-party involvement.

> **Key Term: invoice discounting**
> A confidential arrangement in which a company receives a loan secured against its receivables, repaying funds when customers settle, while retaining control of collections.

### **Worked Example 1.1**

A company with annual credit sales of \$5 million is considering non-recourse factoring. The factor offers 80% upfront, charges a 2% commission on total sales, and interest at 6% per annum on funds advanced. Current average receivables days are 60. The factor expects to reduce collection time to 45 days and estimates bad debts savings of \$5,000.

Calculate the net annual cost or benefit of factoring assuming a 365-day year.

> **Answer:**
>
> - Current receivables: \$5,000,000 × 60/365 = \$821,918
> - Factored receivables: \$5,000,000 × 45/365 = \$616,438
> - Reduction in receivables: \$205,480
> - Finance cost saved (overdraft at 8%, say): \$205,480 × 8% = \$16,438
> - Commission cost: \$5,000,000 × 2% = \$100,000
> - Interest on factoring advance: \$5,000,000 × 80% × 45/365 × 6% = \$29,589
> - Bad debt savings: \$5,000
>   Net cost = Commission + Interest – Overdraft interest saved – Bad debt savings = \$100,000 + \$29,589 – \$16,438 – \$5,000 = \$108,151

### Selecting a Receivables Finance Structure

Select a structure based on:

- Need for confidentiality (invoice discounting suits this)
- Willingness to outsource credit control (factoring offers this)
- Risk appetite regarding bad debts (non-recourse arrangements reduce risk)

## **COST EVALUATION**

Assessing the true cost of receivables financing requires more than just comparing interest rates or fees.

### Direct Costs

- **Factoring commission**: A percentage of sales, covering administration, collection, and (if non-recourse) bad debt cover.
- **Advances interest**: Charged on funds advanced, usually at a margin over base rates.
- **Administrative charges**: Possible setup or monthly service fees.

### Indirect Costs and Benefits

- **Loss of customer relationship control**: Third-party involvement may affect customer experience.
- **Potential negative perception**: Use of factoring can signal financial weakness.
- **Early access to cash**: May reduce reliance on overdrafts, improving liquidity and potentially saving on interest costs.
- **Reduced bad debts**: Non-recourse arrangements provide bad debt protection, reducing profit volatility.

### **Worked Example 1.2**

A business already using a \$200,000 overdraft at 10% p.a. considers invoice discounting. The discounter will advance 85% of receivables, charges 1.2% of sales (\$2,500,000 p.a.), and interest at 7% on funds advanced. Receivables days are 50 and will not change.

Calculate the net annual effect if the overdraft is fully replaced and the same level of funding is required.

> **Answer:**
>
> - Invoice discount advance: \$2,500,000 × 50/365 × 85% = \$291,096
> - Invoice discounting interest: \$291,096 × 7% = \$20,377
> - Commission: \$2,500,000 × 1.2% = \$30,000
> - Overdraft interest saved: \$200,000 × 10% = \$20,000
> - Net cost: \$30,000 + \$20,377 – \$20,000 = \$30,377
> - The facility costs more than the overdraft, but may improve liquidity.

### Impact on Financial Position and Ratios

Receivables finance affects:

- Gearing (debt levels may rise with invoice discounting)
- Liquidity (more cash)
- Key ratios (payables, interest cover, working capital turnover)

## **COVENANT IMPACTS**

Covenants are contractual clauses in receivables financing agreements that restrict borrower actions to protect the financier’s interests.

> **Key Term: covenant**
> A legally binding clause in a finance agreement, imposing conditions or restrictions to limit borrower risk or behaviour.

Common covenants include:

- **Minimum equity or net asset requirements**: Breach could allow cancellation of the facility.
- **Limitations on further debt or asset sales**: Restricts the company's ability to take on new finance or sell assets without factor approval.
- **Restrictions on customer mix or concentration**: May refuse to fund invoices to certain customers or high-risk debtors.

Consequence of Breach

- Immediate withdrawal of funding or demand for repayment of advanced funds
- Potential negative signal to suppliers, customers, or credit rating agencies

### **Worked Example 1.3**

A company’s receivables facility includes a covenant that net current assets must not drop below \$100,000. Due to an unexpected inventory write-down, net current assets fall to \$75,000. What could happen?

> **Answer:**
>
> - The financier may freeze new advances, demand early repayment, or terminate the facility. The company’s liquidity could be abruptly compromised.

### **Exam Warning**

> Always assess both the direct financial cost and the contractual covenants when recommending or evaluating receivables finance solutions in case scenarios.

## **Summary**

Receivables financing (factoring and invoice discounting) can provide businesses with immediate cash, improve liquidity, and manage bad debt risk. However, these tools have costs that go beyond visible fees and interest. The imposition of restrictive covenants may affect future borrowing, business flexibility, and even threaten funding continuity if breached. For the ACCA exam, you must weigh quantitative and contractual factors when assessing the suitability and impact of receivables finance arrangements.

## **Key Point Checklist**

_This article has covered the following key knowledge points:_

- Describe factoring and invoice discounting as receivables financing structures
- Identify and evaluate direct and indirect costs, including commission, interest, and operational impacts
- Explain the role and effect of covenants in receivables financing agreements
- Assess how receivables finance affects financial statements and ratios
- Advise on appropriate receivables finance choices, mindful of cost and restrictions

## **Key Terms and Concepts**

- receivables financing
- factoring
- recourse and non-recourse factoring
- invoice discounting
- covenant

Receivables financing structures - Cost evaluation and covenant impacts