## **Learning Outcomes**

After reading this article, you will be able to distinguish between nominal (money) and effective (real) interest rates, explain the Fisher formula, identify how inflation affects interest rates and cash flow projections, and apply the real vs nominal method in investment appraisal. You will also be equipped to calculate and interpret the impact of inflation on project appraisals for the ACCA Financial Management syllabus.

## **ACCA Financial Management (FM) Syllabus**

For ACCA Financial Management (FM), you are required to understand the influence of inflation and interest rates when evaluating financial decisions and investment projects. Focus your revision on:

- The distinction between nominal (money) and real (effective) interest rates
- The use and interpretation of the Fisher formula
- How inflation affects both discount rates and project cash flows
- The difference between the real approach and the nominal approach in investment appraisal
- Application of real and nominal rates in discounted cash flow techniques
- The implications of using the correct combination of discount rates and cash flows in the ACCA exam

## **Test Your Knowledge**

_Attempt these questions before reading this article. If you find some difficult or cannot remember the answers, remember to look more closely at that area during your revision._

1. What is the key difference between a nominal interest rate and an effective (real) interest rate?
2. Which formula links the nominal rate, real rate, and inflation in investment appraisals?
3. In a DCF calculation, if project cash flows are expressed in money (inflated) terms, which discount rate should be used?
4. True or false? The real method and the money method always produce the same NPV if a single inflation rate is used and tax is ignored.

## **Introduction**

A core principle of financial management is the time value of money: funds received today are worth more than the same sum received later. Interest rates (the "price" of money) and inflation (the general rise in prices) both affect the value of future cash flows. For the ACCA exam, understanding the distinction between nominal (money) rates and effective (real) rates, as well as how inflation impacts project appraisals, is essential. Failure to apply the correct approach may lead to incorrect conclusions or lost marks.

> **Key Term: Time value of money**
> The concept that money available now is worth more than the same amount in the future due to its potential to earn returns and the effect of inflation.
>
> **Key Term: Nominal (money) interest rate**
> The stated rate of interest including inflation, used to discount money cash flows, also known as the money or gross rate.
>
> **Key Term: Real (effective) interest rate**
> The rate of return excluding inflation, representing the true increase in purchasing power.
>
> **Key Term: Fisher formula**
> The equation that links the nominal rate (i), real rate (r), and inflation rate (h): (1 + i) = (1 + r)(1 + h).

## **Nominal vs Effective Interest Rates**

When evaluating projects or investments, it is essential to distinguish between the nominal (money) interest rate and the real (effective) interest rate.

- The **nominal interest rate** includes compensation for both the use of money (the real return) and expected inflation.
- The **real interest rate** reflects only the true increase in purchasing power, excluding inflation.

These rates are connected by the **Fisher formula**:

$$(1 + i) = (1 + r)(1 + h)$$

where:

- _i_ = nominal rate
- _r_ = real rate
- _h_ = inflation rate

Always use the rate that matches the cash flows being discounted.

## **Impact of Inflation on Financial Appraisal**

Inflation erodes the purchasing power of money over time. You must take it into account when forecasting both cash inflows and outflows.

- **Money (nominal) cash flows**: Cash flows inflated to reflect expected price increases. Discount with the **nominal rate**.
- **Real cash flows**: Uninflated, reflecting today's prices (excluding inflation). Discount with the **real rate**.

Mixing real cash flows and nominal rates (or vice versa) leads to faulty logic and misstated NPVs.

## **Methods for Allowing for Inflation in DCF**

There are two consistent approaches for incorporating inflation in discounted cash flow (DCF) appraisals:

**1. Money (Nominal) Method:**

- Inflate all cash flows using appropriate inflation rates.
- Discount at the money (nominal) interest rate.

**2. Real Method:**

- Leave cash flows uninflated (real terms).
- Discount at the real interest rate.

**Key rule:** Always match the type of cash flow with the correct discount rate.

### **Worked Example 1.1**

_A company invests \$10,000 in a project expecting annual net cash inflows of \$4,000 for 4 years, at today's prices. General inflation is 3% per year. The real cost of capital is 8% per year. What is the correct NPV using both methods?_

> **Answer:**
>
> **Money method:**
>
> 1. Inflate each \$4,000 cash inflow at 3% for years 1–4 to get money values.
> 2. Discount them at the money rate:
>    (1 + i) = (1 + 0.08) × (1 + 0.03) = 1.1104 ⇒ i = 11.04%
>
> Calculate NPV using 11.04% discount rate and inflated cash flows.
>
> **Real method:**
>
> 1. Leave cash flows at \$4,000.
> 2. Discount at the real rate of 8%.
>
> Both approaches yield the same NPV (allowing for rounding).
>
> **Exam tip:** Use the method easiest for calculations—typically real for annuities if only one rate is involved; always nominal if tax or multiple inflation rates apply.

## **Effective vs Nominal Rates in Practice**

Many financial contracts quote a nominal rate, but the actual return may differ due to compounding or fees.

- **Effective annual rate (EAR):** The actual annual return after compounding.
- If interest is compounded more than once per year, EAR > nominal rate.

> **Key Term: Effective annual rate (EAR)**
> The real annual interest rate reflecting the effect of intra-year compounding.

### **Worked Example 1.2**

_A loan advertises a 12% nominal interest rate, compounded quarterly. What is the effective annual rate?_

> **Answer:**
>
> Quarterly rate: 12% ÷ 4 = 3%.
>
> EAR = (1 + 0.03)^4 – 1 = 12.55%
>
> **Revision Tip:** For investment appraisal, focus on matching cash flows and discount rates before worrying about EAR. EAR is more relevant for comparing borrowing/investment offers outside of project appraisals.

## **Applying Inflation and Specific Rates to Cash Flows**

Not all cash flows inflate at the general rate. Salaries, raw materials, sales, and other items may have their own specific rates.

- Adjust each cash flow item with its individual inflation rate if specified.
- Once all future cash flows are stated in money terms, discount at the nominal rate.

> **Key Term: Specific inflation rate**
> The rate of price increase applied to a particular cash flow item, which may differ from the general inflation rate.

### **Worked Example 1.3**

_A manufacturing project expects annual wage savings of \$1,500 (wages inflating at 4% per year) and material savings of \$600 (materials at 2% per year) for three years. The real discount rate is 6%. General inflation is 3%._

> **Answer:**
>
> Step 1: Inflate wage and material savings separately for each year.
>
> Step 2: Combine all cash flows for each year.
>
> Step 3: Calculate the nominal (money) rate:
> (1 + i) = (1 + 0.06) × (1 + 0.03) = 1.0908, so i = 9.08%
>
> Step 4: Discount all money cash flows at 9.08% to obtain the NPV.
>
> **Exam Warning**:
>
> Always ensure cash flows and discount rates are consistent. Using a real discount rate with money (inflated) cash flows—or vice versa—will result in incorrect answers and possible loss of marks.

## **Summary**

Interest rates used in discounted cash flow appraisals must match how cash flows are stated (real or money). The Fisher formula links nominal and real rates, while inflation affects both cash flows and required returns. The real and nominal methods yield identical results when consistently applied. Use the 'money' method if multiple inflation rates or taxation are present.

## **Key Point Checklist**

_This article has covered the following key knowledge points:_

- Define and distinguish between nominal and real interest rates
- Apply the Fisher formula to link rates and inflation
- Adjust cash flows for specific and general inflation rates
- Correctly match cash flows and discount rates in project appraisal
- Apply the real and money approaches, knowing when each is appropriate
- Calculate the effective annual rate for multiple compounding

## **Key Terms and Concepts**

- Time value of money
- Nominal (money) interest rate
- Real (effective) interest rate
- Fisher formula
- Effective annual rate (EAR)
- Specific inflation rate


Time value of money foundations - Effective vs nominal rates and inflation