## **Learning Outcomes**

By the end of this article, you will be able to explain the purpose and scope of the IASB’s Conceptual Framework, distinguish between the elements of financial statements, apply the recognition criteria for assets, liabilities, income, and expenses, and make materiality judgements in accordance with ACCA SBR expectations. You will also be able to justify the recognition or non-recognition of items in practical exam scenarios.

## **ACCA Strategic Business Reporting (SBR) Syllabus**

For ACCA Strategic Business Reporting (SBR), you are required to understand and critically apply key aspects of the Conceptual Framework and materiality. In particular, you should focus your revision on:

- The role and purpose of the Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting
- Definitions of the elements of financial statements (assets, liabilities, equity, income, expenses)
- The recognition criteria for each element
- Materiality as applied to recognition, measurement, and disclosure
- Using the Framework to justify judgements in areas not specifically addressed by an IFRS Standard

## **Test Your Knowledge**

_Attempt these questions before reading this article. If you find some difficult or cannot remember the answers, remember to look more closely at that area during your revision._

1. Which of the following best describes the definition of an asset according to the Conceptual Framework?
   a) A physical item owned by the entity  
   b) A resource controlled as a result of past events, expected to provide economic benefits  
   c) Any item that increases equity  
   d) A transaction yet to occur

2. When should an item be recognised as a liability?
   a) Only if payment is due within twelve months  
   b) When settlement cannot be avoided and the amount can be measured reliably  
   c) When a contract is signed for future services  
   d) Only when it relates to a loan

3. True or false? Materiality is determined solely by the monetary value of the item.

4. Briefly outline why certain internally generated intangible assets (such as a brand) are not recognised in the financial statements.

## **Introduction**

The IASB's Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting is a set of principles that guide the preparation and presentation of general purpose financial statements. It forms the basis for developing accounting standards and provides direction where no specific IFRS Standard applies. Knowing the definitions and recognition criteria for elements of the financial statements—assets, liabilities, equity, income, and expenses—is essential for preparing reliable and comparable accounts.

Materiality is a key factor in determining which items must be recognised or disclosed. Information is material if omitting, misstating, or obscuring it could influence decisions made by users. A clear understanding of the Conceptual Framework and how materiality guides recognition is critical for the SBR exam.

> **Key Term: Conceptual Framework**
> A set of theoretical principles that provide the basis for developing accounting standards and guiding judgement in the absence of a specific IFRS requirement.

## **The Elements of Financial Statements**

The Conceptual Framework defines five elements:

- Assets
- Liabilities
- Equity
- Income
- Expenses

Each element must meet a precise definition before it can be recognised in the financial statements.

> **Key Term: asset**
> A present economic resource controlled by the entity as a result of past events.
>
> **Key Term: liability**
> A present obligation to transfer an economic resource as a result of past events.
>
> **Key Term: equity**
> The residual interest in the entity’s assets after deducting all its liabilities.
>
> **Key Term: income**
> Increases in assets or decreases in liabilities that result in increases in equity, other than those relating to contributions from equity holders.
>
> **Key Term: expense**
> Decreases in assets or increases in liabilities that result in decreases in equity, other than distributions to equity holders.

## **Recognition Criteria**

Not all items that meet an element’s definition are recognised in the financial statements. Under the Conceptual Framework, an item is recognised if it provides relevant information and can be faithfully represented.

### When to Recognise an Element

To recognise an asset, liability, income, or expense, three conditions must be met:

1. The item meets the definition of an element.
2. Its recognition provides useful (relevant) information to users.
3. It can be measured reliably in a way that gives a faithful representation.

If any of these criteria are not satisfied, the item may not be recognised. For instance, uncertainty over measurement or existence can prevent recognition.

> **Key Term: recognition**
> The process of including an item that meets the definition of an element in the statement of financial position or performance with a carrying amount.

### Derecognition

Derecognition means removing an asset or liability from the financial statements, usually when control or a present obligation no longer exists.

> **Key Term: derecognition**
> The removal of an asset or liability from the statement of financial position when it no longer meets the recognition criteria.

## **Materiality**

Materiality is a central concept in financial reporting. Information is material if it could, individually or collectively, influence the decisions of users.

> **Key Term: materiality**
> Information is material if its omission, misstatement, or obscuration could reasonably be expected to affect user decisions.

Materiality is entity-specific. It depends on the size and nature of an item, considered both individually and in combination with other information.

> **Key Term: relevance**
> The capacity of information to make a difference to user decisions.
>
> **Key Term: faithful representation**
> Information that is complete, neutral, and free from error.

### **Worked Example 1.1**

An entity develops a new software platform. It spends \$2 million on research and testing over three years. The platform is expected to generate significant future revenue. The costs have been incurred across various departments, making them difficult to separate from normal operating expenses.

**Question:** Should the \$2 million be capitalised as an intangible asset?

> **Answer:**
> The platform may meet the definition of an asset as it is a resource controlled by the entity. However, if the costs cannot be measured reliably or separated from general operating expenses, recognition may not provide a faithful representation. According to the Conceptual Framework and IAS 38, such internally generated brands or similar items are usually not recognised as assets.

### **Worked Example 1.2**

A company signs a contract on 20 December to purchase inventory, delivery and payment due next year. Should the inventory be recognised as at the reporting date?

> **Answer:**
> No. At the reporting date, the company does not control the inventory and no economic resource has flowed. The contract is an executory contract, so no asset or liability is recognised until one party performs.

### **Exam Warning**

> In the exam, always explain not only whether an element meets a definition, but also whether recognition is appropriate. Failing to justify recognition—especially where measurement uncertainty is high—may result in lost marks.

## **Applying Materiality in Recognition and Disclosure**

An item does not have to meet a specific monetary threshold to be material. Qualitative attributes, such as whether an item is a related party transaction, can also make it material. Immaterial items may be aggregated, and immaterial information should not obscure relevant details.

Materiality affects all areas: recognition, measurement, presentation, and disclosure. Omitting or misclassifying a material item could mislead users.

### **Worked Example 1.3**

A company receives a government grant of \$10,000 in a year where revenue is \$200 million. Is disclosure required?

> **Answer:**
> Although quantitatively small, if the grant relates to an area of high sensitivity (e.g., environmental subsidies), disclosure may be material by nature, even if not by size.

### **Revision Tip**

> When you justify recognition or derecognition in the exam, refer specifically to both relevance and faithful representation, and comment on any measurement uncertainty.

## **Summary**

The Conceptual Framework sets the definitions for assets, liabilities, equity, income, and expenses. Only items that meet an element’s definition and recognition criteria—relevance, faithful representation, and reliable measurement—are recognised. Materiality applies across recognition, measurement, and disclosure, and requires careful judgement. For SBR, be ready to justify why an item is, or is not, recognised, and to support your argument with reference to the framework’s principles.

## **Key Point Checklist**

_This article has covered the following key knowledge points:_

- Define each of the five elements of financial statements
- Apply the recognition and derecognition criteria for those elements
- Distinguish between definition and recognition of assets and liabilities
- Explain the principle and role of materiality in recognition, measurement, and disclosure
- Use the Conceptual Framework to support judgements in exam-style questions

## **Key Terms and Concepts**

- Conceptual Framework
- asset
- liability
- equity
- income
- expense
- recognition
- derecognition
- materiality
- relevance
- faithful representation

Conceptual framework and materiality - Elements and recognition criteria