AP English Language and Composition

## Learning Outcomes

- Identify the difference between a **topic**, a **claim**, and a **defensible thesis**
- Distinguish a text’s **main claim** from its supporting **subclaims**
- Recognise common forms of **evidence**, including facts, examples, statistics, testimony, and anecdotes
- Explain the difference between **evidence** and **commentary**
- Trace how claims and evidence create a **line of reasoning**
- Evaluate whether evidence is **relevant**, **sufficient**, and **credible** for AP-style analysis

## AP English Language and Composition Syllabus

For the AP English Language and Composition, you are expected to understand how arguments are built from claims and evidence, with a focus on the following syllabus points:

- Know that a **claim** is an arguable assertion, not just a topic or fact
- Identify the **main claim** of a passage and distinguish it from **subclaims**
- Recognise that claims may be **explicit** or **implied**
- Identify different kinds of **evidence**, including facts, examples, statistics, testimony, anecdotes, and comparisons
- Explain the difference between **evidence** and **reasoning/commentary**
- Understand how claims, evidence, and commentary form a **line of reasoning**
- Judge whether evidence is **relevant**, **sufficient**, and **credible**
- Apply these distinctions in multiple-choice reading questions and free-response writing

## Test Your Knowledge

_Attempt these questions before reading this article. If you find some difficult or cannot remember the answers, look more closely at that area during your revision._

1. What is the difference between a topic and a claim?
2. How can you tell whether a sentence is a main claim or a subclaim?
3. Name three different types of evidence a writer might use.
4. What is the difference between evidence and commentary?
5. How can a claim be present in a passage even if the author never states it directly?

## Introduction

AP English Language asks you to do more than spot opinions. You must identify what an author is trying to prove, how that point is broken into smaller parts, and what support is used to make the argument convincing. That skill matters in both sections of the exam. In multiple-choice, you may be asked to identify a claim, evaluate support, or judge whether evidence actually proves a point. In free response, you must do the same work in your own writing.

Students often lose marks because they treat any detail as evidence, or because they summarise what a writer says without identifying the argument underneath it. The key is to move in order: find the claim, locate the evidence, then explain how the evidence supports the point.

> **Key Term: claim**
> An arguable assertion or position that a writer wants an audience to accept.

### What counts as a claim?

A claim is not just any sentence with an opinion in it. It must be something that could be argued about and supported with proof. That is why “Rain fell on Tuesday” is a statement of fact, while “The city’s poor drainage system made Tuesday’s storm far more damaging than it should have been” is a claim. The second sentence makes an assertion that requires support and explanation.

A useful first distinction is between **topic** and **claim**. A topic is the broad subject. A claim is the writer’s position about that subject.

- Topic: school uniforms
- Claim: schools should require uniforms because they reduce distraction and improve school identity

This matters on the exam because wrong answers often give you the subject instead of the argument. If a question asks for the author’s claim, “school uniforms” is too broad. It tells you what the passage is about, not what the author is arguing.

> **Key Term: defensible thesis**
> A clear, arguable position that can be supported with evidence and explanation.

Claims can also be more or less sophisticated. A weak claim is broad and absolute: “Technology is bad.” A stronger claim is qualified: “Technology can improve learning when it supports instruction, but constant digital distraction can weaken focus.” The stronger version works better because it defines conditions and avoids overstatement.

That idea links directly to AP writing. In argument and synthesis essays, a simple claim can score well if supported clearly. But an overcomplicated thesis with weak support usually collapses.

> **Test Tip:** When a multiple-choice question asks for the author’s claim, test each option with this question: “Could this sentence be argued and defended with evidence?” If not, it is probably a topic or fact, not the claim.

### Main claim, subclaim, and implied claim

Most passages do not just make one flat point. They build an argument in layers. The **main claim** is the central point the whole passage is trying to establish. **Subclaims** are the smaller supporting points that help prove it.

> **Key Term: main claim**
> The central argument of a passage or essay that the rest of the writing supports.
>
> **Key Term: subclaim**
> A smaller supporting point that helps develop and prove the main claim.

For example, imagine a passage arguing that public libraries still matter in the digital age.

- Main claim: public libraries remain essential public institutions
- Subclaim 1: libraries provide free access to information
- Subclaim 2: libraries offer community services beyond books
- Subclaim 3: libraries reduce inequality in access to technology

Students often confuse the most detailed point with the main claim. A paragraph about free internet access may be important, but if the whole passage is about why libraries remain essential, that paragraph is supporting the larger argument.

You should also expect **implied claims**. Sometimes the author never writes a thesis sentence such as “Therefore, libraries remain essential.” Instead, the claim emerges through repeated emphasis, examples, and tone. If every paragraph highlights the public value of libraries and answers objections, the argument is still there even without a formal thesis.

> **Key Term: implied claim**
> A claim that is not directly stated but can be inferred from the passage’s repeated ideas and development.

How do you find an implied claim?

1. Look for repeated ideas
2. Notice what the author defends most strongly
3. Ask what conclusion the evidence is pushing you toward
4. Check the ending for a broad takeaway or judgement

This is especially useful in rhetorical analysis. A writer’s purpose and argument may develop over the course of the passage, not appear in the opening sentence.

### What counts as evidence?

Evidence is the support a writer uses to substantiate a claim. It is broader than quotation alone. On AP English, evidence can include facts, data, statistics, anecdotes, examples, comparisons, testimony, expert opinion, observations, or specific details.

> **Key Term: evidence**
> The support a writer uses to prove or substantiate a claim.

A common student mistake is calling every detail “evidence.” A detail only functions as evidence if it supports a specific claim. If a writer describes a crowded waiting room, that detail might be evidence for a claim about poor healthcare access. Without the claim, it is just description.

Here are common evidence types:

- **Facts**: verifiable statements
- **Statistics or data**: numbers used to show patterns or scale
- **Examples**: specific cases that illustrate a broader point
- **Anecdotes**: brief stories, often personal
- **Testimony or expert opinion**: statements from people presented as informed or authoritative
- **Comparisons or analogies**: used to clarify or support a point

Suppose a writer claims that Fridays are students’ favourite school day. The evidence might include:

- survey data from students
- examples of clubs, games, or dances usually held on Fridays
- a quotation from a student leader about Friday attendance

Those are not equal in quality. Survey data may look strong, but if the sample is tiny or biased, it weakens. A student leader’s opinion may feel vivid, but that person is not necessarily an expert. Evidence is not just about type. It is also about quality.

> **Key Term: credibility**
> The degree to which a source or piece of evidence appears trustworthy and believable.
>
> **Key Term: relevance**
> The extent to which evidence directly supports the claim being made.
>
> **Key Term: sufficiency**
> The degree to which enough specific evidence is provided to make a claim convincing.

To evaluate evidence, ask three questions:

1. Is it relevant to the claim?
2. Is it credible?
3. Is it sufficient?

For instance, if a writer claims school uniforms improve academic performance, evidence about lower clothing costs may be relevant to affordability but not directly to academic performance. That is a relevance problem. If the writer cites “everyone knows uniforms help,” that is a credibility problem. If the writer gives one anecdote and nothing more, that is a sufficiency problem.

> **Test Tip:** On AP multiple-choice, strong wrong answers often include evidence that sounds impressive but does not actually match the claim in the question stem. Always match evidence to the exact point being argued.

### Evidence is not commentary

Many students can find evidence but still miss the score because they stop too early. AP English does not reward evidence by itself. It rewards evidence plus explanation.

> **Key Term: commentary**
> The writer’s explanation of how or why the evidence supports the claim.

Evidence answers “what proof is used?” Commentary answers “so what?” or “how does this prove the point?”

Look at this short example:

Claim: School uniforms can improve student focus.  
Evidence: One district reported fewer dress-code referrals after adopting uniforms.

At this stage, the writer has not finished the job. Commentary is needed:

Commentary: Fewer dress-code referrals suggest that less class time is being spent on clothing disputes, which may allow students and teachers to focus more consistently on learning.

That final sentence does the reasoning work. It connects the evidence to the claim.

> **Key Term: reasoning**
> The logic that explains how the evidence supports the claim.

In AP Lang classrooms, **commentary** and **reasoning** often overlap. Both refer to the explanation that links support to argument. This distinction matters because many low-scoring essays summarise evidence rather than explaining it.

Summary says: “The author mentions that dress-code referrals went down.”  
Commentary says: “This supports the claim because fewer dress-code disputes suggest fewer distractions during the school day.”

The second one earns credit because it interprets the evidence.

### Building a line of reasoning

A strong argument is not just a pile of claims and examples. It has direction. The thesis leads to subclaims; subclaims are supported by evidence; commentary connects the parts. Together, that creates a **line of reasoning**.

> **Key Term: line of reasoning**
> The logical sequence that connects thesis, claims, evidence, and commentary across a whole argument.

You can think of it as a chain:

Topic -> Main claim -> Subclaims -> Evidence -> Commentary -> Overall argument

For example:

- Topic: public transportation
- Main claim: cities should expand public transportation
- Subclaim 1: expansion reduces traffic congestion
- Evidence: commuter data showing fewer cars on heavily served routes
- Commentary: if more people use transit, fewer individual cars occupy road space, which reduces congestion

Then the writer may move to another subclaim:

- Subclaim 2: expansion improves access to jobs
- Evidence: workers can reach more employment centres without owning a car
- Commentary: wider access to transport expands the range of realistic job options

The line of reasoning is the logic connecting these points, not just the order of paragraphs. A passage can be organised neatly and still have weak reasoning if the links between evidence and claims are unclear.

This idea also explains a major AP rubric pattern. High-scoring essays do not just provide specific evidence. They consistently explain how that evidence supports a line of reasoning.

### A practical method for identifying claims and evidence in a passage

When reading an AP passage, do not start by hunting for devices or isolated details. Start with the argument structure.

Use this four-step method:

1. Ask: what is the writer trying to convince the audience of?
2. Mark the main claim or infer it if necessary
3. Identify the subclaims paragraph by paragraph
4. Underline the evidence attached to each subclaim

Then add one more step for deeper analysis:

1. Ask how the writer explains the connection, or where that connection is weak

Here is a simple worked model.

Passage idea: schools should begin later in the day.

- Main claim: later school start times benefit students
- Subclaim 1: students get more sleep
- Evidence: studies showing teenagers sleep too little under early schedules
- Subclaim 2: attendance and alertness improve
- Evidence: examples from districts that shifted start times
- Subclaim 3: academic performance may improve
- Evidence: test score or grade trends after schedule changes

Now check for commentary. If the writer only lists sleep data and district examples without explaining why those changes matter, the argument remains underdeveloped. If the writer explains the causal link between sleep, alertness, and learning, the reasoning becomes stronger.

Common student errors include:

- mistaking the topic for the claim
- choosing a vivid example instead of the main claim
- treating commentary as evidence
- assuming a claim must appear in one sentence
- listing support without judging its quality

If you train yourself to separate these parts, both your reading and writing improve.

## Key Point Checklist

_This article has covered the following key knowledge points:_

- A claim is an arguable assertion, not just a topic or fact
- A defensible thesis is a clear claim that can be supported with evidence
- The main claim is the central argument of a passage
- Subclaims are smaller points that help prove the main claim
- Some claims are explicit, while others are implied through development
- Evidence can include facts, data, examples, anecdotes, testimony, and comparisons
- A detail only counts as evidence if it supports a claim
- Strong evidence must be relevant, credible, and sufficient
- Commentary explains how or why the evidence supports the claim
- Reasoning and commentary work together to connect proof to argument
- A line of reasoning is the logical chain linking thesis, claims, evidence, and explanation
- On AP English, students lose marks when they summarise evidence instead of explaining its significance

## Key Terms and Concepts

- claim
- defensible thesis
- main claim
- subclaim
- implied claim
- evidence
- credibility
- relevance
- sufficiency
- commentary
- reasoning
- line of reasoning


Claims and Evidence - Identify claims and evidence