AP English Language and Composition

## Learning Outcomes

- Understand what makes an introduction or conclusion appropriate to the rhetorical situation
- Identify the difference between a rhetorical situation and rhetorical choices
- Write a concise introduction that establishes context and ends with a defensible thesis
- Write a conclusion that reinforces the line of reasoning without repeating the thesis word for word
- Recognise common weaknesses such as summary, generic hooks, and device listing
- Apply introduction and conclusion strategy to AP Lang rhetorical analysis prompts

## AP English Language and Composition Syllabus

For the AP English Language and Composition, you are expected to understand how introductions and conclusions should respond to the rhetorical situation, with a focus on the following syllabus points:

- Know College Board Skill **2.A**: write introductions and conclusions appropriate to the purpose and context of the rhetorical situation
- Identify the main parts of the rhetorical situation: writer or speaker, audience, purpose, exigence, context, and message
- Explain what makes a **defensible thesis** in a rhetorical analysis essay
- Understand that rhetorical analysis asks how rhetorical choices develop purpose and meaning for an audience
- Distinguish between contextual setup and actual analysis of rhetorical choices
- Recognise that the rubric rewards thesis, evidence and commentary, and sophistication, with evidence and commentary carrying the most points
- Understand why concise openings and endings are usually stronger than decorative but empty ones in timed writing

## Test Your Knowledge

_Attempt these questions before reading this article. If you find some difficult or cannot remember the answers, look more closely at that area during your revision._

1. What should an AP Lang rhetorical analysis introduction do besides “hook” the reader?
2. What is the difference between the rhetorical situation and rhetorical choices?
3. Why is a generic conclusion weaker than one tied to audience and purpose?
4. What makes a thesis in rhetorical analysis defensible rather than merely descriptive?
5. Why can a stylish introduction still lead to a low essay score?

## Introduction

In AP English Language and Composition, introductions and conclusions matter, but not in the way many students think. The exam does not reward long, dramatic openings or sentimental endings by themselves. It rewards writing that fits the task. That means your beginning and ending should be shaped by the **rhetorical situation**: who is writing, to whom, in what context, for what purpose, and in response to what exigence.

This is especially important in the rhetorical analysis essay. Your job is not to impress the reader with a grand opening about “human nature” or “the power of words.” Your job is to show, quickly and clearly, that you understand the passage and can make an arguable claim about how the writer’s choices work.

> **Key Term: rhetorical situation**
> The relationship among writer or speaker, audience, purpose, exigence, context, and message in a piece of communication.

## Introduction

A strong AP Lang introduction is usually brief. A strong conclusion is also usually brief. Their value comes from function, not length. The introduction sets up the argument and presents a defensible thesis. The conclusion reinforces the line of reasoning and clarifies significance. If either paragraph becomes generic, repetitive, or detached from the prompt, it stops helping the essay.

> **Key Term: defensible thesis**
> A specific, supportable claim that answers the prompt and makes an argument about the writer’s rhetorical choices.

### What the rhetorical situation changes in your opening and ending

Students often memorize one formula for every essay and then force it onto every prompt. That is risky because appropriateness matters. A speech by Susan B. Anthony, a eulogy by Barack Obama, and a reflective essay by a contemporary writer do not call for identical framing.

The rhetorical situation changes what your introduction should emphasize. If the passage is a public speech delivered during political conflict, the occasion and audience expectations matter immediately. If the passage is a personal letter, relationship and intimacy matter more. If the piece responds to a crisis, the exigence often helps explain the writer’s urgency and tone.

> **Key Term: exigence**
> The issue, event, or pressure that prompts a writer or speaker to speak at a particular moment.

A good introduction therefore does not just name the author and topic. It selects the parts of the situation that actually help your analysis. For example:

- If a speaker is addressing potential jurors, mention that because it explains why the argument may sound legal, careful, and credibility-focused.
- If a writer addresses a grieving national audience, mention that because it explains why the rhetoric may balance comfort with persuasion.
- If a text is written during war, protest, or reform, mention that because it shapes purpose and urgency.

This is where many weak introductions fail. They provide background, but not relevant background. An essay might say that a speech was delivered “in America during hard times,” but that is too vague to guide analysis. A stronger introduction identifies what part of the situation matters and then moves into a claim about rhetorical choices.

> **Test Tip:** If a detail from the prompt does not help explain purpose, audience, or choice, do not force it into the introduction. Relevant context scores better than extra context.

Another common problem is confusing situation with choices. “Obama gives this speech in Paris” is situation. “Obama uses vivid imagery and urgent repetition” is choice. Your introduction should usually include both: enough situation to frame the essay, then a thesis about choices.

### What an effective AP Lang introduction must accomplish

A rhetorical analysis introduction has three main jobs.

First, it identifies the writer and the situation with enough precision to frame the passage accurately.

Second, it states the writer’s purpose or message in a way that goes beyond topic. Topic is what the passage is about. Purpose is what the writer is trying to make the audience think, feel, or do. “Climate change” is a topic. “Urging world leaders to act collectively and immediately on climate policy” is purpose.

Third, it ends with a defensible thesis about rhetorical choices.

That last part is decisive. Many introductions sound polished but miss the thesis point because they only restate the prompt. Consider the difference:

Weak approach:

- The author uses rhetorical strategies to develop his argument.

Why it fails:

- It simply repeats the task.
- It does not identify purpose.
- It does not specify any choices.

Stronger approach:

- In response to growing concern about media bias, the speaker uses loaded diction, rhetorical questions, and contrast to challenge his audience’s trust in television news and push them toward skepticism.

Why it works:

- It gives context.
- It identifies purpose.
- It names specific choices.
- It makes an arguable claim.

A useful formula is:

In [context], [writer] addresses [audience] about [subject or exigence]. Using [choice 1], [choice 2], and [choice 3], [writer] aims to [purpose].

This formula works because it keeps you focused on analysis rather than summary. But it is only useful if the choices are specific enough. “Ethos, pathos, and logos” on their own are often too broad. Those labels can help, but the essay needs the actual technique: legal diction, personal anecdote, repetition, ironic contrast, choice of detail, syntax, or allusion.

> **Key Term: rhetorical choices**
> The deliberate language, structural, and stylistic decisions a writer makes to influence an audience.

A strong introduction is also proportionate. In a 40-minute essay, spending seven minutes crafting a dramatic opening is usually a poor trade. The body paragraphs earn most of the points because Row B, evidence and commentary, carries the greatest weight. A two- or three-sentence introduction is often enough.

Here is a worked model.

Prompt situation:
A reformer writes to lawmakers after a public crisis, urging policy change.

Possible introduction:
In the aftermath of a public crisis, the reformer addresses lawmakers who have the power to act but may resist change. By combining urgent diction, concrete examples of harm, and appeals to civic duty, the writer presses the audience to see delay as both morally and politically indefensible.

Why this works step by step:

1. “In the aftermath of a public crisis” establishes exigence.
2. “addresses lawmakers” identifies audience.
3. “who have the power to act but may resist change” adds useful inference about audience tension.
4. The final sentence names three choices.
5. The final clause states a clear purpose.
   > **Test Tip:** On a timed essay, aim for a functional introduction, not a theatrical one. If your thesis is clear and your context is relevant, move on to the body paragraphs quickly.

### What an effective conclusion must accomplish

Students often weaken otherwise good essays at the end by repeating the thesis almost word for word or by adding broad moral claims that were never developed. A rhetorical analysis conclusion should do more than stop the essay. It should complete the reasoning.

An effective conclusion usually does three things.

First, it restates the main line of reasoning in fresh language. This is not just thesis repetition. It should sound slightly fuller because the body paragraphs have already proven the claim.

Second, it reconnects the rhetorical choices to purpose and audience. The essay is about how language works on people in a situation. The conclusion should bring that relationship back into focus.

Third, when appropriate, it points to significance. That significance must grow naturally from the essay. It might show why the rhetoric is effective, why the moment matters, or why the audience would have been especially responsive. It should not suddenly become a vague statement about “the importance of freedom in society.”

A practical formula is:

By using [choice 1], [choice 2], and [choice 3], [writer] advances [purpose]. These strategies help [audience] to [effect], showing that [broader significance].

This works best when the broader significance is still tied to the rhetorical situation. For example, if the speaker addresses a divided audience, the significance may be that the rhetoric creates temporary unity. If the writer addresses skeptics, the significance may be that the language lowers resistance before making a stronger claim.

Compare these endings.

Weak conclusion:

- Overall, the author uses many rhetorical devices to get her point across. This is effective because words are powerful.

Why it fails:

- It is generic.
- It names no actual choices.
- It offers no audience-based reasoning.
- It says almost nothing a reader could not have guessed before reading the essay.

Stronger conclusion:

- Through legal reasoning, strategic repetition, and morally charged diction, Anthony reframes her prosecution as evidence of a larger injustice. By doing so, she pushes listeners not merely to sympathize with her case, but to question a political system that denies women full citizenship.

Why it works:

- It restates the reasoning with precision.
- It links choice to purpose.
- It shows movement from individual case to broader audience effect.

Students sometimes ask whether the conclusion can earn the sophistication point. Not by itself. Sophistication comes from the essay’s overall depth and control. Still, a conclusion can support sophistication when it sharpens the essay’s understanding of audience tension, historical stakes, or complexity in the writer’s purpose.

### Weak vs strong models and the errors students most often make

The fastest way to improve introductions and conclusions is to study the patterns of failure.

The first major error is the broad hook.

Example:

- Since the beginning of time, humans have used language to persuade one another.

This sounds formal, but it does no real work. It wastes time and gives the reader no better understanding of the prompt.

The second error is summary instead of analysis.

Example:

- In this passage, the speaker talks about freedom and describes why freedom matters.

That tells us content, not rhetoric. It also leaves out audience and choice.

The third error is the device laundry list.

Example:

- The author uses diction, syntax, imagery, logos, pathos, ethos, repetition, and allusion.

This creates no argument. A thesis needs selection. If everything is important, nothing is prioritized.

The fourth error is the empty conclusion.

Example:

- Overall, the passage is effective and achieves its purpose.

That may be true, but the reader already knows you think that. The conclusion should explain why the choices matter together.

The fifth error is introducing a totally new idea in the last line.

Example:

- This shows that all societies must reform education immediately.

If the essay was about how a speaker thanked volunteers, that ending is disconnected and weak.

Here is a side-by-side distinction.

Weak introduction features:

- generic opening
- restated prompt
- vague purpose
- no specific choices

Strong introduction features:

- relevant context
- clear audience or exigence
- precise purpose
- specific rhetorical choices
- defensible thesis

Weak conclusion features:

- repeats thesis exactly
- says “words are powerful”
- adds a random life lesson
- offers no audience effect

Strong conclusion features:

- fresh restatement
- reconnects choices to purpose
- emphasises audience impact
- notes significance rooted in the prompt

One final distinction matters: formal does not mean inflated. Clear, direct prose usually sounds more mature than stuffed phrasing. AP readers value control. A short, sharp introduction with a real thesis is better than a windy paragraph that never lands.

## Key Point Checklist

_This article has covered the following key knowledge points:_

- AP Lang Skill **2.A** asks you to write introductions and conclusions appropriate to the rhetorical situation
- The rhetorical situation includes writer or speaker, audience, purpose, exigence, context, and message
- In rhetorical analysis, the introduction should set up the situation and end with a defensible thesis
- A defensible thesis makes a specific claim about rhetorical choices and purpose
- Rhetorical situation and rhetorical choices are not the same thing
- Topic is not the same as purpose; purpose explains what the writer wants the audience to think, feel, or do
- Strong introductions are usually brief and functional in timed writing
- Broad hooks and prompt restatements often weaken introductions
- Strong conclusions restate the line of reasoning in fresh language rather than repeating the thesis word for word
- Effective conclusions reconnect rhetorical choices to audience and purpose
- The essay earns most of its points through evidence and commentary, so introductions and conclusions should support analysis rather than replace it
- Generic claims such as “words are powerful” or “the author uses many devices” are too vague for strong rhetorical analysis

## Key Terms and Concepts

- rhetorical situation
- defensible thesis
- exigence
- rhetorical choices


Rhetorical Situation - Introductions and conclusions strategy