AP European History

## Learning Outcomes

- Explain why decolonization accelerated after **1945** but did not happen all at once
- Identify the main causes of decolonization, including European weakness, anti-colonial nationalism, and self-determination
- Compare British, French, Dutch, Belgian, and Portuguese decolonization patterns
- Understand why some colonies became independent through negotiation while others fought long wars
- Recall key examples including **India (1947)**, **Indonesia (1949)**, **Ghana (1957)**, **Algeria (1962)**, and **Zimbabwe (1980)**
- Analyse how settler populations, Cold War rivalry, and local conditions shaped different outcomes
- Use decolonization as evidence in AP Euro causation, comparison, and continuity/change essays

## AP European History Syllabus

For the AP European History, you are expected to understand how decolonization progressed unevenlyed unevenly across the twentieth century, with a focus on the following syllabus points:

- Know that decolonization accelerated after **World War II**, but stretched from the **1940s to the 1970s** and beyond
- Identify key causes of decolonization: weakened European empires, anti-colonial nationalism, self-determination, and international pressure
- Explain why British, French, Dutch, Belgian, and Portuguese imperial withdrawal followed different timelines
- Understand how **settler colonies** often decolonized later and more violently than colonies with few European settlers
- Recognise the importance of **India (1947)**, **Palestine/Israel (1948)**, **Indonesia (1949)**, **Ghana (1957)**, **Algeria (1962)**, **Kenya (1963)**, and **Zimbabwe (1980)**
- Explain why the **Suez Crisis (1956)** is a turning point in imperial decline rather than a standard independence case
- Distinguish between formal independence and deeper issues such as majority rule, stability, and neo-colonial influence

## Test Your Knowledge

_Attempt these questions before reading this article. If you find some difficult or cannot remember the answers, look more closely at that area during your revision._

1. Why did decolonization speed up after **1945**?
2. Why did some colonies gain independence peacefully while others fought long wars?
3. What role did **settler populations** play in delaying decolonization?
4. Why is the **Suez Crisis** treated as evidence of imperial decline?
5. Name two examples of violent decolonization and two examples of relatively negotiated decolonization.

## Introduction

Decolonization is one of the clearest ways Unit 9 connects Europe to the wider world. It shows that after **1945**, European states were still central to world politics, but no longer strong enough to dominate vast overseas empires as they had in the nineteenth century. For AP Euro, the key idea is not simply that empires ended. It is that they ended at different times, through different methods, and with very different results.

That unevenness matters. If you write that decolonization was a single peaceful wave after World War II, your answer will miss the core historical pattern. Britain often negotiated withdrawal, but not always. France fought major colonial wars. The Netherlands tried to return to empire and failed. Portugal held on much longer. In some places independence came quickly; in others, European settlers, ethnic divisions, or Cold War pressures made conflict far worse.

> **Key Term: decolonization**
> The process by which a colony or dependent territory gains independence from an imperial power, either through negotiation, political pressure, or war.

### Why decolonization accelerated after World War II

World War II was the major turning point, but not the sole cause. European empires had already faced resistance before 1945. Anti-colonial nationalism had been growing since the late nineteenth century, often led by educated colonial elites who used European ideas such as liberty, nationalism, and self-government against imperial rule. The **Indian National Congress**, founded in **1885**, is a good example of nationalism developing long before the war ended.

What changed after 1945 was the balance of power. Britain, France, and the Netherlands emerged exhausted financially and militarily. War damage, debt, and reconstruction made empire more expensive to maintain. Colonial rule was never just a map colour; it required troops, administrators, transport, and political will. After World War II, all of those were harder to supply.

> **Key Term: self-determination**
> The principle that a people should choose its own government and political future.

Self-determination also became more powerful after both world wars. European leaders had spoken about liberty and national rights, but colonial subjects noticed that those promises were often applied only to Europeans. After 1945, this contradiction was harder to defend. The new **United Nations** also gave anti-colonial movements an international language of rights and legitimacy.

The **United States** and **Soviet Union** added pressure, though for different reasons. The US often opposed old colonial structures, especially when they blocked trade or destabilized allies. The USSR opposed European empires as part of its anti-capitalist message and sought influence in new states. Neither superpower was purely idealistic, but both made empire harder for Europeans to sustain.

A strong AP argument usually says: World War II accelerated decolonization because it weakened Europe and strengthened colonial nationalism, but local conditions determined the pace and violence of each case.

> **Test Tip:** In an LEQ or DBQ, avoid saying "World War II caused decolonization" as a one-line explanation. Add at least two more factors, such as nationalism, settler resistance, or Cold War pressure.

### Why decolonization was uneven

The biggest reason decolonization happeneded unevenly is that colonies were not all alike. Some had few European settlers. Some had many. Some were mainly valued for trade routes. Others were treated by the metropole as extensions of the nation itself. Some had well-organized nationalist leaders and parties. Others had weaker institutions or sharper internal divisions.

> **Key Term: settler colony**
> A colony with a substantial permanent European settler population; these often decolonized more slowly and with more violence.

Settler colonies were usually harder to decolonize peacefully because settlers feared losing land, political dominance, and security. That is why **Algeria**, **Kenya**, and **Rhodesia/Zimbabwe** became especially tense. By contrast, colonies with fewer settlers, such as **Ghana**, often moved more quickly toward independence.

Imperial governments also differed. Britain often preferred gradual withdrawal and Commonwealth ties, especially where holding on seemed too costly. France was more likely to resist where prestige or settler interests were at stake. The Netherlands fought to recover Indonesia after Japanese occupation. Belgium withdrew abruptly from the Congo with little preparation. Portugal, under dictatorship, held on until the **Carnation Revolution (1974)** changed politics at home.

Cold War rivalry shaped outcomes too, but should not be treated as the only reason. In **Vietnam**, decolonization became deeply entangled with the struggle between communism and anti-communism. In other cases, such as **Ghana**, independence was not primarily a Cold War warzone. That contrast is exactly the kind of comparison AP Euro rewards.

### Major examples of uneven decolonization

**India, 1947** is the key early case. Britain granted independence after decades of nationalist pressure led by figures such as **Mohandas Gandhi** and **Jawaharlal Nehru**. This looks like negotiated decolonization, but students often miss the violence of **partition**. British India was divided into **India** and **Pakistan**, producing massive migration and communal killings among Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs. So India shows both success and trauma: independence came, but not smoothly.

> **Key Term: partition**
> The division of a territory into separate states or political units, often producing migration and violence.

**Palestine/Israel, 1948** was different again. Palestine had been a British **mandate**, not a classic colony.

> **Key Term: mandate**
> A territory administered by an imperial power under international authority; Palestine was a British mandate until 1948.

Britain withdrew and the United Nations supported partition into Jewish and Arab states. The state of **Israel** was founded on **May 14, 1948** and immediately fought neighboring Arab states. This case shows imperial retreat from a deeply contested territory, not a neat handover.

**Indonesia, 1945–1949** shows Dutch imperial weakness. Nationalists under **Sukarno** declared independence in **1945** after Japanese occupation. The Dutch tried to restore control but faced armed resistance and international criticism. By **1949**, the Netherlands recognised Indonesian independence. This is useful in essays because it proves decolonization was not only British and French.

**Ghana, 1957** is a model of relatively negotiated decolonization. Under **Kwame Nkrumah**, Ghana became the first sub-Saharan African colony to gain independence from Britain in the postwar period. It mattered beyond itself because it inspired other African nationalist movements.

**Kenya, 1963** complicates the idea of peaceful British withdrawal. The **Mau Mau** uprising of the 1950s grew from anger over land and settler control. British repression was harsh. Kenya therefore shows that even within the British Empire, outcomes varied sharply depending on local land issues and settler conflict.

**Algeria, 1954–1962** is one of the most important violent cases. The **FLN** launched the Algerian War in **1954**. France fought brutally, using repression, torture, and counterinsurgency. Algeria mattered more to France than many colonies because it had been under French rule since **1830** and contained a large settler population, the **pieds-noirs**. The war helped bring down the **French Fourth Republic** and strengthened **Charles de Gaulle**, who ultimately accepted Algerian independence in **1962**.

**Indochina/Vietnam, ending in 1954** is another major French defeat. **Ho Chi Minh** led anti-colonial forces against France. The French defeat at **Dien Bien Phu (1954)** ended major French rule and the **Geneva Accords** temporarily divided Vietnam into North and South. This case is especially important because it links decolonization directly to the Cold War.

**Rhodesia/Zimbabwe** shows the difference between formal withdrawal and **majority rule**. In **1965**, the white minority regime in Southern Rhodesia declared unilateral independence from Britain to avoid Black majority government. Only in **1980** did internationally recognised Zimbabwe emerge under majority rule. This is a classic example of why decolonization did not always mean immediate justice or equal citizenship.

### Suez, late empire, and what changed after independence

The **Suez Crisis (1956)** was not a colony becoming independent in the standard sense, but it is one of the strongest symbols of imperial decline. Egyptian president **Gamal Abdel Nasser** nationalised the Suez Canal. Britain, France, and Israel attacked, expecting to restore control. Instead, pressure from both the **United States** and the **Soviet Union** forced them to withdraw. The lesson was stark: Britain and France were no longer able to act as autonomous world empires.

> **Test Tip:** If a question asks for evidence of declining British and French imperial power, Suez is excellent. But do not describe it as if Egypt became independent in 1956; Egypt had already been formally independent since 1922.

Decolonization also reshaped Europe itself. Migration from former colonies changed British, French, and Dutch societies. People moved from the Caribbean, South Asia, North Africa, and Indonesia to the metropole for work, education, or refuge. So decolonization was not only something Europe did overseas. It changed European identity at home.

Finally, formal independence did not end outside influence.

> **Key Term: neo-colonialism**
> Indirect domination after formal independence through economic, political, military, or cultural influence.

Many new states remained tied to former imperial powers through trade, aid, military links, and migration. Some also became arenas of Cold War competition. So AP answers should show continuity as well as change: empire ended politically, but unequal power relations often survived.

## Key Point Checklist

_This article has covered the following key knowledge points:_

- Decolonization accelerated after **1945** but proceededed unevenly across the twentieth century
- Major causes included European weakness after World War II, anti-colonial nationalism, self-determination, and superpower pressure
- Colonies decolonized differently because of settler populations, local divisions, strategic value, and imperial policy
- **India (1947)** is a major case of British withdrawal, but partition brought mass violence and migration
- **Indonesia (1949)** shows Dutch failure to restore colonial rule after World War II
- **Ghana (1957)** is a landmark example of relatively negotiated sub-Saharan African independence
- **Algeria (1954–1962)** shows violent settler-colonial resistance and crisis within France
- **Dien Bien Phu (1954)** ended major French rule in Indochina and tied decolonization to the Cold War
- **Kenya** and **Zimbabwe** show that British decolonization was not always peaceful
- The **Suez Crisis (1956)** exposed the decline of British and French imperial power
- Formal independence did not always produce stability, democracy, or majority rule
- Neo-colonial influence and migration ties meant empire’s effects continued after independence

## Key Terms and Concepts

- decolonization
- self-determination
- settler colony
- partition
- mandate
- neo-colonialism


Decolonization - Decolonization unfolded unevenly over century