## Learning Outcomes

- Explain why Italian unification succeeded after the failed revolutions of **1848**
- Identify the different roles of **Count Camillo di Cavour**, **Giuseppe Garibaldi**, and **Victor Emmanuel II**
- Recall the key chronology of Italian unification from **1859** to **1870**
- Distinguish between unification from above through diplomacy and monarchy and unification from below through popular military action
- Analyse why nationalism alone was not enough to unify Italy
- Compare moderate monarchical nationalism with more radical republican nationalism
- Use Italian unification as evidence in AP European History arguments about causation, comparison, and continuity and change

## AP European History Syllabus

For the AP European History, you are expected to understand Italian unification in the mid-19th century, with a focus on the following syllabus points:

- Know that the **Risorgimento** was the movement for Italian national revival and political unification
- Identify **Piedmont-Sardinia** as the state that led unification under **Victor Emmanuel II**
- Explain how **Cavour** used diplomacy, alliance politics, and war against **Austria**
- Understand how **Garibaldi** and the **Red Shirts** conquered southern Italy in **1860**
- Distinguish between **Cavour’s realpolitik** and **Garibaldi’s revolutionary nationalism**
- Trace the sequence: **1859 Lombardy**, **1860 central states and Expedition of the Thousand**, **1861 Kingdom of Italy**, **1866 Venetia**, **1870 Rome**
- Explain why **France**, especially **Napoleon III**, was both a help and a limit to unification
- Understand that Italy unified under a **monarchy**, not as the democratic republic imagined by many earlier nationalists

## Test Your Knowledge

_Attempt these questions before reading this article. If you find some difficult or cannot remember the answers, look more closely at that area during your revision._

1. Why did many Italian nationalists look to Piedmont-Sardinia after **1848**?
2. How did Cavour use foreign policy to weaken Austrian control in Italy?
3. What was Garibaldi’s **Expedition of the Thousand**, and why did it matter?
4. Why did Rome remain outside the Kingdom of Italy until **1870**?
5. How did Italian unification show both nationalism and power politics at work?

## Introduction

Italian unification is one of the clearest AP European History examples of **nationalism** working through both ideas and force. Students often remember the broad outcome, that Italy became a unified state in the 19th century, but exam questions usually reward those who can explain **how** it happened and **why** it took the form it did.

This matters because Italian unification was not a simple national uprising. It was a mix of elite diplomacy, war, plebiscites, foreign alliances, popular activism, and compromise. The two most important figures in this process were **Count Camillo di Cavour** and **Giuseppe Garibaldi**, but they wanted unity in very different ways.

> **Key Term: Risorgimento**
> The 19th-century movement for Italian national revival and political unification.

### Why Piedmont-Sardinia became the centre of unification

The failed revolutions of **1848** taught Italian nationalists several hard lessons. Before 1848, some liberals hoped Italy might become a federation led by the pope. That hope collapsed after the short-lived Roman Republic failed and **Pope Pius IX** returned to a much more reactionary position. After that, many nationalists concluded that the papacy would not lead a modern Italian nation.

The revolutions also showed that scattered uprisings were not enough. Austria still dominated key northern territories, especially **Lombardy** and **Venetia**, and local revolts could be crushed. The one Italian state that emerged with credibility after 1848 was **Piedmont-Sardinia**, because it kept its constitution and remained the strongest independent Italian state.

> **Key Term: Piedmont-Sardinia**
> The northern Italian kingdom, ruled by the House of Savoy, that became the base for Italian unification.

This was the crucial shift. Earlier nationalism in Italy had often been republican and idealistic, linked to figures such as **Giuseppe Mazzini** and **Young Italy**. After 1848, many nationalists moved toward a more practical idea: if Italy could not be born through revolution alone, perhaps it could be built through a strong state.

That state was Piedmont-Sardinia, ruled by **Victor Emmanuel II** and directed politically by **Count Camillo di Cavour**.

> **Key Term: realpolitik**
> Practical, power-based politics that put results above ideology.

Cavour did not begin as a dreamy nationalist. He was a statesman interested first in strengthening Piedmont-Sardinia. That is exactly why he mattered. He understood that national unification would not happen through speeches alone. It required a functioning army, diplomatic allies, and a way to isolate Austria.

This is a major AP distinction: Italian unification was not simply a liberal revolution. It became a **state-building project under a monarchy**.

> **Test Tip:** If an SAQ or LEQ asks why Italian unification succeeded, do not say only “nationalism.” Add that nationalism needed a strong state, foreign allies, and military opportunity.

### Cavour’s strategy: diplomacy, war, and unification from above

Cavour’s central problem was Austria. As long as Austria remained strong in northern Italy, unification was blocked. Cavour also knew Piedmont-Sardinia could not defeat Austria alone. The revolutions of 1848 had already proved that.

So he worked internationally. In **1855**, Piedmont-Sardinia joined the **Crimean War** on the side of Britain and France. Its military role was limited, but that was not the main point. Cavour wanted diplomatic visibility. By supporting the victorious powers, he gained a place at the negotiating table and made Piedmont look like a serious European state.

This step set up the next one: the secret **Plombières Agreement** of **1858** with **Napoleon III** of France.

> **Key Term: Plombières Agreement**
> The secret 1858 agreement in which Napoleon III promised to aid Piedmont-Sardinia against Austria if Austria appeared the aggressor; France would receive Nice and Savoy.

This agreement shows Cavour at his most calculating. France would help only if Austria attacked first, so Cavour needed to provoke Austria into looking like the aggressor. He pushed tensions higher until war began in **1859**.

The war against Austria produced an important but limited victory. French and Piedmontese forces defeated Austria, and **Lombardy** was gained. But Napoleon III stopped the war early. He was disturbed by casualties and worried by wider European complications, including the possibility of Prussian intervention. Cavour was furious because full expulsion of Austria from Italy had not happened.

Yet the war still transformed Italy. Why? Because war triggered nationalist uprisings in **Tuscany, Parma, and Modena**. These central Italian states then used **plebiscites** to vote for union with Piedmont-Sardinia.

> **Key Term: plebiscite**
> A direct vote by the population on a political question, such as union with another state.

This is the key cause-and-effect chain students should know:

- Cavour allied with France
- war with Austria weakened Austrian control
- nationalist revolts spread in central Italy
- plebiscites legitimised annexation to Piedmont-Sardinia

So even though Cavour did not get everything he wanted in 1859, he still pushed unification forward dramatically.

There was, however, a price. France received **Nice and Savoy**. This angered many nationalists, especially Garibaldi, who considered Nice Italian.

This is another useful AP point: Cavour advanced nationalism, but he also compromised it. He was willing to trade territory for diplomatic success.

### Garibaldi’s campaign: popular nationalism and the south

If Cavour represented unification from above, **Giuseppe Garibaldi** represented unification from below. He had revolutionary prestige, links to Mazzini’s earlier nationalism, and a gift for turning patriotism into military action.

> **Key Term: Red Shirts**
> Garibaldi’s volunteer force, famous for its role in conquering southern Italy in 1860.

In **1860**, Garibaldi launched the **Expedition of the Thousand**, sailing with around 1,000 volunteers to Sicily. This sounds small because it was small. That is part of why it became legendary. The force succeeded not because of numbers alone, but because the **Kingdom of the Two Sicilies** was weak, unpopular, and badly ruled by the Bourbons.

> **Key Term: Expedition of the Thousand**
> Garibaldi’s 1860 campaign in which a volunteer force conquered Sicily and then much of southern Italy.

Garibaldi’s victories mattered for several reasons.

First, they spread unification into southern Italy. Cavour’s earlier gains had been mainly in the north and centre. Without Garibaldi, Italy might have remained only a larger Piedmont-led northern kingdom.

Second, Garibaldi showed that nationalism could still mobilise ordinary people, volunteers, and popular enthusiasm. Italian unification was not purely a diplomatic transaction among elites.

Third, his success created a political crisis. Garibaldi was more radical and more republican than Cavour. He wanted to continue to **Rome**, make it the capital, and complete unification in a dramatic nationalist way. But this threatened French interests because **French troops protected the pope in Rome**.

That put Cavour in a difficult position. If Garibaldi kept advancing, he might provoke war with France. He might also unify Italy under his own popular leadership rather than under the Piedmontese monarchy.

So Cavour moved fast. Piedmontese troops advanced southward, and Garibaldi eventually handed over his conquests to **Victor Emmanuel II** at the **meeting of Teano** in **October 1860**. This compromise was essential.

Students often miss this point: Garibaldi did **not** create a separate southern republic. He surrendered his gains for the sake of wider Italian unity.

That decision made the **Kingdom of Italy** possible in **1861**.

> **Test Tip:** A common multiple-choice trap is crediting Garibaldi alone with unification. The stronger answer stresses the combination: Cavour’s diplomacy, Garibaldi’s volunteers, and Victor Emmanuel II’s monarchy.

### What unification achieved, and what it did not

The **Kingdom of Italy** was proclaimed on **March 17, 1861**, but unification was still incomplete. Two major territories remained outside the kingdom: **Venetia** and **Rome**.

Venetia was gained in **1866**, when Italy took advantage of Austrian weakness during the **Austro-Prussian War**. Again, this shows that Italian unification depended on larger European conflicts, not just internal nationalism.

Rome remained outside Italy until **1870** for one main reason: **French troops defended the pope**. As long as Napoleon III protected papal rule, Italy could not annex the city without risking major war.

Only when the **Franco-Prussian War** forced France to withdraw its troops did Italy move in and take Rome. Rome then became the capital.

This gives the full AP chronology:

- **1859**: war with Austria; Lombardy gained
- **1860**: central states join Piedmont; Garibaldi conquers Sicily and Naples
- **1861**: Kingdom of Italy proclaimed
- **1866**: Venetia added
- **1870**: Rome annexed

Italian unification therefore was a process, not a single event.

It also had limits. Politically, Italy became one kingdom. Socially and economically, it stayed divided. The north was more industrial and state-centred; the south was poorer and less integrated. Many southerners did not feel that the new state represented them. Garibaldi himself and other romantic nationalists thought the new Italy felt cold and bureaucratic.

The Catholic Church also remained hostile, especially after the loss of Rome. This weakened national unity further.

So if an essay asks whether nationalism caused Italian unification, the best answer is qualified. Nationalism was necessary, but insufficient by itself. It needed:

- a strong base state in Piedmont-Sardinia
- Cavour’s diplomacy and realpolitik
- military opportunities created by larger wars
- Garibaldi’s popular military success
- compromise under Victor Emmanuel II

### How to use Cavour and Garibaldi in AP essays

For AP European History, this topic is ideal for **causation**, **comparison**, and **continuity/change**.

For causation, show multiple causes. Do not write as if one leader alone unified Italy. Explain how foreign policy, war, monarchy, and popular nationalism interacted.

For comparison, contrast Cavour and Garibaldi directly:

- **Cavour**: elite, diplomatic, monarchical, pragmatic, from above
- **Garibaldi**: popular, military, volunteer-based, more radical, from below

For continuity and change, explain that Italy changed politically by becoming a nation-state, but older structures still mattered. Dynastic monarchy, foreign alliances, and papal politics all remained central.

A strong thesis might argue that Italian unification was less a spontaneous victory of nationalism than a successful fusion of nationalism with statecraft.

> **Key Term: Kingdom of Italy**
> The unified Italian state proclaimed in 1861 under Victor Emmanuel II.

## Key Point Checklist

_This article has covered the following key knowledge points:_

- The **Risorgimento** was the movement for Italian national revival and unification
- The failed revolutions of **1848** showed that Italy could not expel Austria without foreign help
- **Piedmont-Sardinia** became the leading Italian state because it preserved its constitution and had political strength
- **Cavour** used **realpolitik**, diplomacy, and alliance politics to advance unification
- Piedmont-Sardinia joined the **Crimean War** in **1855** to gain diplomatic standing
- The **Plombières Agreement** of **1858** secured French support against Austria
- The **1859** war with Austria led to the acquisition of **Lombardy**
- Central Italian states such as **Tuscany, Parma, and Modena** joined Piedmont through plebiscites in **1860**
- **Garibaldi’s Expedition of the Thousand** conquered Sicily and southern Italy in **1860**
- Garibaldi handed his gains to **Victor Emmanuel II** instead of creating a southern republic
- The **Kingdom of Italy** was proclaimed in **1861**, but full unification came only with **Venetia in 1866** and **Rome in 1870**
- Italian unification was driven by nationalism, but also depended heavily on monarchy, diplomacy, and great-power conflict

## Key Terms and Concepts

- Risorgimento
- Piedmont-Sardinia
- realpolitik
- Plombières Agreement
- plebiscite
- Red Shirts
- Expedition of the Thousand
- Kingdom of Italy


National Unification and Diplomatic Tensions - Cavour and Garibaldi unified Italy