AP World History: Modern

## Learning Outcomes

- Explain how **nationalism**, **imperialism**, and the **alliance system** helped cause World War I
- Distinguish between long-term causes and the immediate trigger in **Sarajevo on 28 June 1914**
- Identify the **Triple Alliance** and **Triple Entente**
- Explain why the **Balkans** were called the “powder keg of Europe”
- Use specific evidence such as the **Bosnian Crisis**, **Balkan Wars**, **Morocco Crises**, and **July Crisis**
- Build an AP-style causation argument using precise historical evidence

## AP World History: Modern Syllabus

For the AP World History: Modern, you are expected to understand the causes of World War I, with a focus on the following syllabus points:

- Know that AP World often frames the causes of World War I through **M.A.I.N.**: militarism, alliances, imperialism, and nationalism
- Identify how **nationalism** worked both as great-power rivalry and as ethnic nationalism in the Balkans
- Explain how **imperialism** increased distrust among European powers, especially through colonial competition
- Identify the prewar alliance blocs: **Triple Alliance** and **Triple Entente**
- Understand why the **Balkans** were unstable because of Ottoman decline, Slavic nationalism, and Austro-Russian rivalry
- Know the significance of the **Bosnian Crisis (1908)**, **Balkan Wars (1912–1913)**, and **Morocco Crises (1905–1906 and 1911)**
- Know that **Archduke Franz Ferdinand** was assassinated in **Sarajevo** on **28 June 1914** by **Gavrilo Princip**
- Explain how the **July Crisis** turned a regional conflict into a wider European war

## Test Your Knowledge

_Attempt these questions before reading this article. If you find some difficult or cannot remember the answers, look more closely at that area during your revision._

1. Why was the assassination of Franz Ferdinand only the trigger, not the sole cause, of World War I?
2. What was the difference between great-power nationalism and Balkan nationalism?
3. Name the countries in the **Triple Alliance** and the **Triple Entente**.
4. How did imperial rivalries in Morocco and the Balkans increase tension before 1914?
5. Why did the alliance system make a local war more likely to become a continental war?

## Introduction

World War I began in **1914**, but the war did not appear out of nowhere. For AP World, you need to show that the conflict developed from long-term pressures inside Europe and across the imperial world. The most useful approach is to separate **underlying causes** from the **immediate trigger**.

In this subtopic, the main long-term causes are **nationalism**, **imperialism**, and the **alliance system**. These created a tense and unstable international order. Then the assassination at Sarajevo in **June 1914** set off a chain reaction that leaders could no longer control.

> **Key Term: M.A.I.N.**
> A common memory aid for the causes of World War I: militarism, alliances, imperialism, and nationalism.

### Nationalism as a force of rivalry and unrest

**Nationalism** was one of the strongest political forces in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In Europe, it operated in two important ways, and AP questions often expect you to distinguish between them.

First, nationalism encouraged **great-power rivalry**. Countries such as **Germany**, **Britain**, **France**, and **Russia** increasingly saw international politics as a struggle for prestige, strength, and survival. National pride became tied to military success, empire, and industrial power. This made compromise harder. Leaders feared looking weak, and newspapers often encouraged public support for tougher foreign policy.

> **Key Term: nationalism**
> Strong loyalty to one’s nation or ethnic group, often linked to the desire for political power, independence, or prestige.

Second, nationalism encouraged **ethnic nationalism**, especially in multinational empires. This was most dangerous in the **Balkans**, where many peoples wanted self-determination. The Ottoman Empire had been losing control there for decades, and new states such as **Serbia**, **Bulgaria**, **Romania**, and **Greece** emerged or expanded. These nationalist movements did not just seek pride; they wanted territory and independence.

Serbia became especially important. Serbian nationalists wanted to unite South Slavs, including Slavic peoples living under **Austria-Hungary** in places like **Bosnia-Herzegovina**. That meant Serbian nationalism directly threatened the stability of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which ruled over many ethnic groups.

Russia supported Serbia for both cultural and strategic reasons. Many Russians promoted **Pan-Slavism**, the idea that Slavic peoples should cooperate or unite. Russian leaders also wanted more influence in the Balkans. This meant Serbian nationalism could pull Russia into any major Balkan crisis.

> **Key Term: Pan-Slavism**
> The belief that Slavic peoples should unite or cooperate politically and culturally, often associated with Russian support for Slavic groups in the Balkans.

The **Balkans** therefore became the most dangerous zone in Europe. Nationalism there was not abstract. It involved real border disputes, collapsing imperial authority, and competing ambitions from **Serbia**, **Austria-Hungary**, **Russia**, and the weakening **Ottoman Empire**.

> **Test Tip:** In causation essays, do not just say “nationalism caused World War I.” Explain the two forms: rivalry among major powers and separatist nationalism in the Balkans.

### Imperialism and rivalry for colonies and influence

Imperialism also raised tensions before 1914. During the late nineteenth century, European powers competed for colonies, raw materials, markets, and naval advantage. By **1900**, much of Africa and Asia had already been claimed, so remaining disputes became sharper.

> **Key Term: imperialism**
> A policy by which a state extends control over other territories through conquest, colonization, or economic domination.

Germany’s rise mattered here. It had unified only in **1871**, later than Britain and France, and many German leaders believed the country deserved a bigger empire. This created friction with older imperial powers, especially Britain and France.

The best examples are the **Morocco Crises**. In **1905–1906**, Germany challenged French influence in Morocco, hoping to weaken France and test Britain’s commitment to it. Instead, the crisis increased German isolation and pushed Britain and France closer together. In **1911**, Germany again challenged France during the Agadir Crisis. Once more, tension rose rather than fell.

These disputes did not directly start World War I, but they deepened mistrust. Germany increasingly saw itself as encircled. Britain increasingly saw Germany as aggressive.

Imperialism also mattered in southeastern Europe, though in a slightly different way. In the Balkans, the struggle was less about overseas colonies and more about **regional influence**. As Ottoman authority weakened, both **Austria-Hungary** and **Russia** wanted a greater role in the region. This was sometimes called the **Eastern Question**: what would happen to Ottoman territory as the empire declined?

The **Bosnian Crisis of 1908** showed how serious this had become. Austria-Hungary formally annexed **Bosnia-Herzegovina**, which angered Serbia and Russia. Serbia wanted Bosnia because many Serbs and other Slavs lived there. Russia, still weak after defeat by Japan in **1905**, could not force Austria-Hungary to reverse course. But resentment remained.

> **Key Term: Bosnian Crisis**
> The 1908 crisis caused by Austria-Hungary’s annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina, which intensified hostility from Serbia and Russia.

Then came the **Balkan Wars of 1912–1913**. In the first war, the **Balkan League** of Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro fought the Ottoman Empire and took much of its remaining European territory. In the second war, the victors fought one another over the division of land. Serbia emerged stronger, and Austria-Hungary grew more alarmed.

Why did that matter? A larger, more confident Serbia meant a larger threat to Austria-Hungary’s control over its own Slavic populations. At the same time, Russia became more invested in Serbian survival. So Balkan instability linked nationalism and imperial rivalry together.

### The alliance system and the spread of conflict

European leaders formed alliances partly to preserve security. In practice, those alliances made a future crisis much more dangerous.

> **Key Term: alliance system**
> A set of formal or informal agreements among states that promise support or cooperation, increasing the chance that a local conflict will widen.

In the **1880s**, **Otto von Bismarck** tried to protect Germany through careful diplomacy. He wanted to isolate France after the **Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871**, in which France lost **Alsace-Lorraine** and deeply resented Germany. Bismarck helped create the **Triple Alliance** of **Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy**.

At the same time, he tried to avoid conflict with Russia. But after **Kaiser Wilhelm II** pushed Bismarck aside in **1890**, Germany let relations with Russia worsen. France took advantage and formed an alliance with Russia in the **1890s**.

Britain had long avoided permanent commitments, but German expansion changed that. Germany’s overseas ambitions and naval build-up worried Britain. By **1907**, Britain had reached agreements with France and Russia, creating the **Triple Entente**.

> **Key Term: Triple Alliance**
> The prewar alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.
>
> **Key Term: Triple Entente**
> The prewar alignment of France, Russia, and Britain.

These alliances were not identical. The Triple Entente was looser than the Triple Alliance, and Italy did not stay loyal once war began. But the key exam point is that Europe had split into armed camps. This meant any regional conflict could pull in several great powers.

Germany also planned for that danger militarily. Its **Schlieffen Plan** assumed war with both France and Russia. Germany intended to strike France quickly through **Belgium**, then turn east against Russia. That planning made diplomacy less flexible. Once mobilization began, leaders feared delay more than compromise.

> **Test Tip:** When explaining alliances, avoid saying they “automatically caused” war. Better analysis shows that they made escalation more likely once leaders chose mobilization and intervention.

### Sarajevo and the July Crisis: from assassination to world war

The immediate trigger came on **28 June 1914** in **Sarajevo**, capital of Bosnia. **Archduke Franz Ferdinand**, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, was assassinated by **Gavrilo Princip**, a Bosnian Serb nationalist linked to the **Black Hand**.

> **Key Term: Gavrilo Princip**
> A Bosnian Serb nationalist who assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914.

This mattered because Bosnia was already a symbol of the larger Balkan struggle. Austria-Hungary saw Serbia as the source of dangerous nationalism. Serbian militants saw Austria-Hungary as an oppressor.

The assassination did not force war by itself. What caused war was the **July Crisis**, the chain of decisions made after it.

Austria-Hungary wanted to punish Serbia. Germany offered full support in the famous **blank cheque** of **5–6 July 1914**, encouraging Austria-Hungary to take a hard line. On **23 July**, Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia with severe demands. Serbia accepted most, but not all. Austria-Hungary declared war on **28 July**.

Russia then mobilized in support of Serbia. Germany, fearing encirclement and following its war planning, declared war on Russia on **1 August** and on France on **3 August**. Germany invaded Belgium, and Britain declared war on Germany on **4 August 1914**.

This is the key chain of escalation AP students must know:

- assassination in Sarajevo
- Austrian ultimatum to Serbia
- German support for Austria-Hungary
- Russian mobilization for Serbia
- German declarations of war
- invasion of Belgium
- British entry

The reason this local assassination became a world war was that nationalism, imperial rivalry, and alliances had already made Europe unstable.

### How to use this in an AP causation answer

For AP World, strong writing does more than list factors. It weighs them.

A solid thesis might argue that **nationalism was the most direct cause because it destabilized the Balkans**, while **imperial rivalry and alliances created the wider European setting that made escalation possible**. That is stronger than saying “there were many causes.”

You should also separate:

- **long-term causes**: nationalism, imperialism, alliances
- **short-term trigger**: Sarajevo assassination and July Crisis

A high-scoring answer uses specific evidence such as:

- **Triple Alliance**
- **Triple Entente**
- **Bosnian Crisis (1908)**
- **Balkan Wars (1912–1913)**
- **Morocco Crises**
- **28 June 1914**
- **blank cheque**
- **4 August 1914**

If asked for comparison, compare types of nationalism. If asked for causation, explain how one factor led into another. If asked for continuity and change, note that European rivalry had existed for centuries, but by **1900** industrial power, nationalism, and alliance blocs made it more dangerous than before.

> **Test Tip:** In an LEQ or SAQ, use a clear judgement. For example: “Although imperialism worsened relations, Balkan nationalism was the most immediate long-term cause because it directly linked Austria-Hungary, Serbia, and Russia.”

## Key Point Checklist

_This article has covered the following key knowledge points:_

- World War I resulted from long-term tensions as well as the short-term trigger at Sarajevo
- **Nationalism** worked both as rivalry among great powers and as ethnic nationalism in the Balkans
- **Serbian nationalism** threatened Austria-Hungary, especially over Bosnia-Herzegovina
- **Pan-Slavism** encouraged Russian support for Serbia
- **Imperialism** increased mistrust among European powers through competition for colonies and influence
- The **Morocco Crises** deepened hostility among Germany, France, and Britain
- The **Bosnian Crisis of 1908** increased tension among Austria-Hungary, Serbia, and Russia
- The **Balkan Wars of 1912–1913** strengthened Serbia and worried Austria-Hungary
- The **Triple Alliance** consisted of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy
- The **Triple Entente** linked France, Russia, and Britain
- The assassination of **Franz Ferdinand** on **28 June 1914** was the immediate trigger, not the sole cause
- The **July Crisis** turned a regional dispute into a wider war through ultimatums, mobilization, and alliance commitments

## Key Terms and Concepts

- M.A.I.N.
- nationalism
- Pan-Slavism
- imperialism
- Bosnian Crisis
- alliance system
- Triple Alliance
- Triple Entente
- Gavrilo Princip


Causes of World War I - Nationalism, imperialism, and alliance systems