AP World History: Modern

## Learning Outcomes

- Explain how the **Sunni-Shia split** shaped politics in the early modern Middle East
- Identify key rulers, including **Shah Isma'il I**, **Selim I**, and **Shah Abbas I**
- Recall the significance of the **Battle of Chaldiran (1514)**
- Compare **Qizilbash** and **Janissaries** as military foundations of rival empires
- Understand how religion supported state-building in the Ottoman and Safavid empires
- Trace continuity and change from early warfare to later treaties such as **Amasya (1555)** and **Zuhab (1639)**
- Use this topic in AP-style causation, comparison, and continuity-and-change arguments

## AP World History: Modern Syllabus

For the AP World History: Modern, you are expected to understand how belief systems shaped rivalry between land-based empires, with a focus on the following syllabus points:

- Know that the **Sunni-Shia split** long predated 1450, but became politically sharper in the rivalry between the Ottomans and Safavids
- Identify the **Ottoman Empire** as a major **Sunni** state and the **Safavid Empire** as a **Shi'a** state centered in Persia/Iran
- Know that **Shah Isma'il I** founded the Safavid dynasty in **1501** and made **Twelver Shi'ism** the state religion
- Explain the significance of the **Battle of Chaldiran (1514)** in showing Ottoman gunpowder superiority
- Understand the role of **Qizilbash** warriors in early Safavid expansion and **Janissaries** in Ottoman military centralization
- Know that the rivalry involved not only religion, but also control of **Anatolia**, **Mesopotamia/Iraq**, the **Caucasus**, and trade routes
- Identify **Treaty of Amasya (1555)** as the first formal peace settlement between the empires
- Know that the **Treaty of Zuhab (1639)** created a more durable frontier between Ottoman Iraq and Safavid Iran

## Test Your Knowledge

_Attempt these questions before reading this article. If you find some difficult or cannot remember the answers, look more closely at that area during your revision._

1. Why did the Ottoman-Safavid rivalry involve more than just religion?
2. What happened at the **Battle of Chaldiran** in **1514**?
3. How did the Safavids use **Twelver Shi'ism** to strengthen their state?
4. What is the difference between the **Qizilbash** and the **Janissaries**?
5. Why are the treaties of **Amasya** and **Zuhab** important?

## Introduction

The Ottoman-Safavid rivalry is one of the clearest AP World examples of how belief systems shaped politics, warfare, and imperial identity in the period **c. 1450–1750**. This was not a conflict between Muslims and non-Muslims. It was a rivalry between two major **Muslim gunpowder empires**, one officially **Sunni** and the other officially **Shi'a**.

For the exam, the key point is that religion did not act alone. The long-standing **Sunni-Shia split** gave the rivalry extra force, but the struggle was also about borderlands, military strength, and trade routes. That makes this topic useful for several AP themes, especially **GOV** and **CDI**, and for reasoning skills such as **causation** and **continuity and change over time**.

> **Key Term: Sunni-Shia split**
> The division within Islam over leadership and religious authority that began after the death of Muhammad in **632 C.E.** and later shaped political rivalries, including that between the Ottomans and Safavids.

### Background: an old religious split in a new imperial setting

The Sunni-Shia split began centuries before the Ottomans and Safavids. After Muhammad died in **632**, Muslims disagreed over who should lead the community. **Sunnis** accepted leaders chosen by the community, beginning with **Abu Bakr**. **Shi'a** Muslims believed leadership should stay within Muhammad's family, especially through **Ali**.

By the early modern period, this old split gained fresh political importance. The **Ottoman Empire** was a powerful **Sunni** state. The **Safavid Empire**, founded in **1501**, turned Persia into a distinctly **Shi'a** state. That sharpened the divide.

> **Key Term: Twelver Shi'ism**
> The main branch of Shi'a Islam adopted by the Safavids, based on belief in a line of **12 imams** descended from Ali.
>
> **Key Term: Safavid Empire**
> A Persian empire founded by **Shah Isma'il I** in **1501**, centered in Iran and identified with **Twelver Shi'ism**.

The Safavids mattered because they changed Iran's religious identity. Before their rise, much of Persia had a Sunni background. By making **Twelver Shi'ism** the official state religion, the Safavids helped create a more separate Iranian political and religious identity.

This is a major AP point: belief systems can help states build legitimacy and unity.

### Shah Isma'il I and the making of a Shi'a state

In **1501**, **Shah Isma'il I** took power and proclaimed the Safavid state. He used religion as a tool of rule as well as a statement of identity. By promoting Shi'ism, he distinguished his empire from the surrounding Sunni powers, above all the Ottomans.

> **Key Term: Shah Isma'il I**
> The founder of the Safavid dynasty, who came to power in **1501** and made **Twelver Shi'ism** the state religion of Persia.

Isma'il's followers included militant tribal supporters known as the **Qizilbash**. Their loyalty was tied strongly to the shah, and they were central to early Safavid military success.

> **Key Term: Qizilbash**
> Turkic tribal warriors who supported the early Safavids and helped Shah Isma'il expand his state.

The Qizilbash gave the Safavids speed and religious energy, but they also created problems. They were more tribal and less centralized than Ottoman military institutions. This difference became very important in war.

The Ottomans saw Safavid Shi'ism not just as a theological disagreement, but as a political danger. Safavid influence among Shi'a groups in eastern Anatolia threatened Ottoman stability. This is why the conflict became so fierce.

> **Test Tip:** If an AP question asks for the cause of Ottoman-Safavid conflict, do not answer “religion” alone. Include **sectarian division**, **territorial rivalry**, and **competition over trade routes**.

### Chaldiran and the power of gunpowder empires

The single most important battle in this topic is the **Battle of Chaldiran** in **1514**. Ottoman Sultan **Selim I** defeated **Shah Isma'il I**.

> **Key Term: Battle of Chaldiran**
> A battle in **1514** in which the Ottoman Empire defeated the Safavid Empire, showing the strength of Ottoman artillery and firearm infantry.

Why does Chaldiran matter so much?

First, it showed the military value of gunpowder weapons. The Ottomans used artillery and disciplined firearm-equipped infantry more effectively than the Safavids. Second, it checked Safavid expansion westward. Third, it damaged Isma'il's image of invincibility.

Selim I also claimed wider Islamic authority for the Ottomans. That made the struggle look even more like a contest over legitimate leadership in the Muslim world.

A useful comparison for AP essays is this:

### Qizilbash and Janissaries: different military foundations

The Safavids and Ottomans both used armies tied to religion and empire, but they were organized differently.

Qizilbash

- tribal warriors
- deeply linked to Safavid Shi'a devotion
- strong in cavalry warfare
- less centralized and less disciplined in gunpowder warfare

Janissaries

- elite Ottoman infantry
- tied directly to the sultan and Ottoman central state
- trained for organized gunpowder warfare
- key to Ottoman battlefield effectiveness
  > **Key Term: Janissaries**
  > Elite Ottoman infantry, originally recruited through the devshirme system, central to Ottoman military power and gunpowder warfare.

At Chaldiran, the contrast mattered. Ottoman military structure beat Safavid zeal. This makes the battle a strong example for the AP theme of **technology and innovation** as well as **governance**.

### Why the rivalry lasted so long

Chaldiran did not end the rivalry. That is a common mistake.

The Ottomans and Safavids kept fighting because three issues remained unresolved:

- **sectarian identity**: Sunni Ottomans versus Shi'a Safavids
- **territorial competition**: especially in **eastern Anatolia**, **Iraq/Mesopotamia**, and the **Caucasus**
- **trade and strategy**: control of routes and key zones linking regions

Baghdad was especially important. The Ottomans captured it in **1534**, gaining a major prize in Mesopotamia. Iraq mattered for religion, strategy, and trade.

> **Key Term: Selim I**
> Ottoman sultan who ruled from **1512 to 1520** and defeated the Safavids at **Chaldiran**.

The rivalry also shaped diplomacy. Both empires needed at times to pause conflict and define borders more clearly.

### From warfare to negotiated frontiers

In **1555**, the two empires agreed to the **Treaty of Amasya**, the first formal peace settlement between them.

> **Key Term: Treaty of Amasya**
> The first formal peace agreement between the Ottoman and Safavid empires, signed in **1555**.

Amasya matters because it shows that land-based empires did not rely only on war. They also used diplomacy to stabilize frontiers.

Later, after further conflict, the two sides signed the **Treaty of Zuhab** in **1639**.

> **Key Term: Treaty of Zuhab**
> The agreement of **1639** that established a more durable border between Ottoman Iraq and Safavid Iran.

Zuhab confirmed a long-term pattern:

- **Ottoman control of Iraq**
- **Safavid control of Iran**

This is important for continuity and change over time. Early in the 1500s, conflict was intense and fluid. By the mid-1600s, the frontier became more settled.

> **Test Tip:** In a continuity-and-change essay, use **1501**, **1514**, **1555**, and **1639** to show movement from sharp early conflict to more stable border diplomacy.

### Shah Abbas I and Safavid state-building

The Safavids did not remain unchanged after Chaldiran. Under **Shah Abbas I** (often called **Abbas the Great**, **r. 1588–1629**), the empire became stronger and more centralized.

> **Key Term: Shah Abbas I**
> Safavid ruler from **1588 to 1629** who strengthened the state, reduced tribal military influence, and improved central control.

Abbas learned from earlier weaknesses. He reduced reliance on the **Qizilbash** and expanded the use of **ghulams**, military and administrative slaves, to strengthen the central state.

> **Key Term: ghulams**
> Military and administrative slaves used by the Safavid state, especially under Shah Abbas I, to reduce reliance on tribal forces.

This is a major AP causation point: rivalry with the Ottomans pushed the Safavids toward stronger military reform and centralization.

Abbas also supported economic and urban growth. **Isfahan** became a major commercial and cultural center, known for silk, ceramics, and carpets. That reminds you that Safavid strength was not only religious and military.

### How to use this topic in AP essays

This topic works especially well in three kinds of AP arguments.

For **causation**, argue that the rivalry was caused by:

- old sectarian division
- state-building needs
- border and trade competition

For **comparison**, compare:

- how Ottomans and Safavids used religion to legitimize rule
- how Janissaries and Qizilbash reflected different state structures
- how Sunni and Shi'a identity shaped imperial politics differently

For **continuity and change**, show:

- continuity: rivalry stayed tied to religion and territory
- change: war gradually gave way to treaty-based frontiers

A strong AP thesis might say that the Ottoman-Safavid rivalry was driven by religious difference, but intensified mainly because both empires used belief systems to strengthen state power and justify control over contested borderlands.

> **Test Tip:** In an LEQ or SAQ, avoid saying the Safavids were “non-Muslim” enemies of the Ottomans. They were **Muslim rivals within Islam**, which is exactly why the conflict was so politically charged.

## Key Point Checklist

_This article has covered the following key knowledge points:_

- The **Sunni-Shia split** began long before 1450, but became politically sharper in the early modern Ottoman-Safavid rivalry
- The **Ottoman Empire** was a major **Sunni** Muslim empire
- The **Safavid Empire** was founded by **Shah Isma'il I** in **1501**
- The Safavids made **Twelver Shi'ism** the state religion of Persia/Iran
- Safavid Shi'ism helped create a more distinct Iranian political-religious identity
- The rivalry involved religion, territory, and trade routes, not theology alone
- The **Battle of Chaldiran (1514)** showed Ottoman superiority in artillery and firearm infantry
- The **Qizilbash** were early Safavid tribal warriors, while the **Janissaries** were elite Ottoman infantry tied to the state
- The **Treaty of Amasya (1555)** was the first formal peace between the empires
- **Shah Abbas I** strengthened the Safavid state and reduced Qizilbash influence
- The **Treaty of Zuhab (1639)** created a more durable frontier between Ottoman Iraq and Safavid Iran
- This topic is a key AP World example of how belief systems shaped **state-building**, **warfare**, and **identity**

## Key Terms and Concepts

- Sunni-Shia split
- Twelver Shi'ism
- Safavid Empire
- Shah Isma'il I
- Qizilbash
- Battle of Chaldiran
- Janissaries
- Selim I
- Treaty of Amasya
- Treaty of Zuhab
- Shah Abbas I
- ghulams


Empires: Belief Systems - Ottoman-Safavid rivalry and the Sunni-Shia split