Islam: Religious identity - Developments in Hajj in the 20th century

Learning Outcomes

• Explain why Hajj is central to Muslim religious identity.
• Describe the main Hajj rites and why they remained stable through the 20th century.
• Identify key 20th-century developments in travel, administration, safety and health.
• Explain how Saudi control shaped the modern organisation of Hajj.
• Assess whether modern developments strengthened or weakened the religious meaning of Hajj.
• Use accurate examples, such as air travel, quotas, Jamarat crowd control and the 1979 Grand Mosque seizure.
• Avoid common exam mistakes about Hajj, modernisation and Islamic unity.

AQA AS Religious Studies (7061) Syllabus

For AQA AS Component 2: Study of Religion, Islam, Hajj belongs to religious identity because it is an outward practice that expresses Muslim belonging, obedience and unity. The subtopic on developments in Hajj in the 20th century asks you to understand both continuity and change: the rites are rooted in the Qur’an, the Prophet Muhammad’s example and the story of Ibrahim, but the experience of performing them was affected by modern travel, Saudi administration, global politics, health systems and crowd management.

• Hajj as one of the Five Pillars and a marker of Muslim identity.
• The main rites: ihram, tawaf, sa‘i, standing at Arafat, Muzdalifah, Mina, Jamarat and sacrifice.
• The growth in numbers during the 20th century.
• Changes in transport, especially steamship, motor transport and air travel.
• The role of Saudi rule in managing Makkah, Madinah and the pilgrimage.
• Health, safety, sanitation, crowd control and accommodation developments.
• Political tensions and incidents affecting Hajj, including late 20th-century crises.
• AO2 evaluation: whether modernisation helps or harms the spiritual purpose of Hajj.

Test Your Knowledge

Attempt these questions before reading this article. If you find some difficult or cannot remember the answers, look more closely at that area during your revision.

1. Why is Hajj described as both an individual duty and a collective expression of the ummah?
2. Name three ways in which 20th-century transport changed access to Hajj.
3. What role did Saudi rule play in the modern organisation of Hajj?
4. Why did health and crowd-control systems become more necessary in the 20th century?
5. How might a Muslim argue that modern developments have not changed the real meaning of Hajj?

Introduction

Hajj is the pilgrimage to Makkah that every adult Muslim should perform at least once in life if they are physically and financially able. It is a major expression of Islamic religious identity because it brings together belief, ritual action, discipline, equality and memory. Muslims from many nations wear simple clothing, perform the same rites and stand before Allah as members of one worldwide community.

The 20th century did not change the core religious duties of Hajj. Pilgrims still enter ihram, perform tawaf around the Ka‘bah, stand at Arafat, stay at Muzdalifah, go to Mina, stone the Jamarat and mark sacrifice. However, the century did change the scale, organisation and experience of Hajj. More Muslims could travel, states became more involved, Saudi Arabia expanded control over the holy places, and safety and health systems became major concerns.

Key Term: Hajj
The annual pilgrimage to Makkah, required once in a lifetime for Muslims who are physically and financially able to perform it.

The spread of commercial air travel made it easier for Muslims from distant countries, including Britain, Indonesia and Nigeria, to reach Makkah during the same pilgrimage season. Sharing the same rites alongside people of different languages and nationalities strengthened the sense that Muslims belonged to one global community, the Ummah.

Key Term: Ummah
The worldwide community of Muslims, united by shared faith, worship and loyalty to Allah.

Hajj as a continuing expression of Muslim identity

To understand developments in the 20th century, you first need to know what remained the same. Hajj is not simply religious tourism. It is a duty linked to submission to Allah and obedience to Islamic teaching. The Qur’an commands pilgrimage to the House for those who are able, and Muslims connect the rites with the Prophet Muhammad’s final pilgrimage and the earlier example of Ibrahim, Hajar and Isma‘il.

The state of ihram expresses equality and self-discipline. Male pilgrims wear two simple white cloths, while women also dress modestly and simply. This removes signs of wealth, class and nationality. Tawaf, circling the Ka‘bah, shows devotion to Allah and reminds Muslims that Allah is the centre of life. Sa‘i, walking between Safa and Marwah, recalls Hajar’s search for water and teaches trust in Allah. Standing at Arafat is often seen as the heart of Hajj because pilgrims ask forgiveness and remember the Day of Judgement.

These rites are vital for exam answers because they show that the 20th century brought changes in access and organisation rather than changes to the foundation of Hajj itself. A strong answer will not say that Hajj became “modern” in the sense that its religious meaning was replaced. Instead, it should explain that modern conditions changed how Muslims reached, managed and experienced the same acts of worship.

Key Term: Ihram
The sacred state entered by pilgrims for Hajj or ‘Umrah, marked by rules of purity, restraint and simple dress.

Once in Ihram, pilgrims carry out the rites in a set sequence, including Tawaf around the Ka‘bah. Tawaf consists of seven circuits in an anti-clockwise direction, showing how improved transport and organisation increased participation without altering the ritual itself.

Key Term: Tawaf
The ritual circling of the Ka‘bah, performed as part of Hajj and ‘Umrah.

After Tawaf, pilgrims continue through the prescribed stages of Hajj, eventually gathering at Arafat for the central act of prayer and repentance. The collective nature of pilgrimage can also be seen at Lourdes, an international Christian pilgrimage site visited by around five million people each year, although Arafat has a specific role within Hajj.

Key Term: Arafat
The plain where pilgrims stand in prayer and repentance during the central rite of Hajj.

A useful comparison is Lourdes, where Bernadette Soubirous reported 18 visions of Mary, followed by the emergence of a spring and organised processions for pilgrims. This illustrates how a personal experience can develop into a shared religious practice, a distinction that helps apply the idea of religious identity to changes in Hajj.

Test Tip: In AQA answers, link developments back to religious identity. For example, do not just say “air travel made Hajj easier”; explain that it enabled more Muslims from across the ummah to take part in a shared act of worship.

Travel, numbers and global access in the 20th century

One of the clearest 20th-century developments was the change in travel. Before modern transport, Hajj could be dangerous, slow and expensive. Pilgrims travelled by camel caravan, sailing ship or long overland routes. Journeys could take months and involved risks such as illness, robbery, shipwreck, heat and lack of supplies. This meant that many Muslims, especially those living far from Arabia, could not realistically perform Hajj even if they longed to do so.

In the early 20th century, steamships had already made long-distance pilgrimage more possible for Muslims from South Asia, Southeast Asia, East Africa and elsewhere. During the century, motor vehicles replaced many older caravan routes. Roads, buses and cars made it easier to move between Jeddah, Makkah, Mina, Arafat and Madinah. Later, air travel changed Hajj even more. Pilgrims could fly from countries such as Indonesia, Pakistan, Nigeria, Egypt, Turkey, Britain and the United States. The opening and growth of airport facilities in Jeddah, including the large Hajj terminal in the late 20th century, reflected the new scale of pilgrimage.

This changed the social character of Hajj. It became more visibly global. Muslims who might once have known mainly their local community could now meet Muslims from across the world. This strengthened the sense of belonging to the ummah. The sight of Muslims of different languages, ethnic backgrounds and nationalities performing the same rites became a powerful sign of Islamic unity.

However, increased access also created pressure. More pilgrims meant greater crowding, more demand for food, water, accommodation and transport, and higher risk at narrow ritual sites. Hajj had always involved hardship, but modern mass participation created new kinds of danger. This is why later 20th-century developments in administration, sanitation and crowd management became essential.

There is also an evaluative issue here. On one hand, modern travel can be seen as a blessing because it allows more Muslims to fulfil a religious duty. On the other hand, some critics argue that air-conditioned hotels, packaged tours and faster journeys may reduce the sense of sacrifice that earlier pilgrims experienced. For exam purposes, the best answer will present both views and then make a reasoned judgement.

Key Term: Five Pillars
The five central duties of Islam: shahadah, salah, zakah, sawm and Hajj.

When using the Five Pillars in an answer, spend a minute identifying whether the question is asking about religious significance, changing access or evaluation, then select only relevant evidence. This prevents modern transport from being treated as automatically beneficial for every Muslim and prepares you to apply the qualification in the exam warning accurately.

Exam Warning: Do not write as if all Muslims must perform Hajj no matter what. The duty applies only to those who are able physically and financially. This matters when discussing modern travel and access.

Saudi rule, administration and the management of Hajj

Another major development was the role of Saudi Arabia. In the early part of the 20th century, the Hijaz, including Makkah and Madinah, moved from Ottoman influence to the rule of the Saudi state. By the 1920s, Ibn Saud had gained control of the holy cities. This gave the Saudi authorities responsibility for security, administration and the protection of the pilgrimage routes.

Saudi rule affected Hajj in several ways. Security improved compared with some earlier periods when pilgrims could face attacks or heavy local taxation on routes. The modern Saudi state also developed systems for visas, permits, transport routes, accommodation zones and official supervision. As the number of pilgrims grew, Hajj became a huge state-managed event.

In the 20th century, Saudi oil wealth gave the government resources to expand infrastructure. Roads were built and improved. Water, sanitation and medical services became more organised. The area around the Grand Mosque in Makkah was expanded to hold larger numbers. Mina developed into a vast camp area for pilgrims. The Jamarat, where pilgrims stone the pillars representing Satan, became a major focus of engineering and crowd control because of the danger of stampedes.

The Saudi authorities also introduced tighter regulation of entry. Visas, group systems and later quota arrangements were used to manage numbers. Quotas became especially relevant as demand grew beyond what the holy sites could safely hold. This raises a useful AO2 issue: is restricting numbers a necessary protection of life, or does it make access to a religious duty harder for some Muslims? Many would argue that safety is part of responsible Islamic governance, especially because the preservation of life is a major moral concern in Islam.

The Saudi role has also been debated because Makkah and Madinah are holy to all Muslims, not only to Saudi citizens. Some Muslims accept Saudi control as practical and necessary, while others have criticised political control, building projects, commercial development and the influence of one state over a global religious duty. This is useful for evaluation because Hajj expresses the unity of the ummah, yet its organisation depends on a particular government.

Key Term: Jamarat
The pillars at Mina that pilgrims stone during Hajj, symbolising rejection of Satan and evil.

The Jamarat illustrates how an ancient rite has been supported by modern infrastructure: a multi-level Jamarat Bridge was developed in the 2000s to manage crowds and reduce the risk of stampedes. This makes it a useful example for weighing the unchanged religious purpose of Hajj against major changes in its organisation.

Test Tip: Use “continuity and change” as a simple structure. Paragraph one: the rites and meaning stayed the same. Paragraph two: travel, numbers and state organisation changed greatly. Paragraph three: assess whether those changes helped or harmed Hajj.

Health, safety and crowd control

Public health became increasingly significant in the 20th century. Large gatherings can spread disease, and Hajj brings people from many parts of the world into close contact. Earlier pilgrimages were sometimes associated with outbreaks of infectious disease, so modern health rules became part of Hajj planning. Vaccination requirements, medical checks, hospitals, clinics, sanitation systems and emergency services all developed to protect pilgrims.

These changes can be linked directly to Islamic values. Hajj involves hardship, but it is not meant to be reckless. Islam does not require people to endanger life unnecessarily. Medical care and sanitation can therefore be seen as serving the purpose of Hajj by allowing pilgrims to worship safely. This is a strong exam point because it avoids the simplistic claim that modern systems are “less spiritual.” For many Muslims, preventing illness allows the duty to be fulfilled properly.

Crowd control was another major issue. As numbers rose, certain points became high-risk areas. These included tawaf around the Ka‘bah, movement between sites, and especially the stoning at the Jamarat. The late 20th century saw serious tragedies, including stampedes and fires. The 1990 tunnel disaster near Makkah killed many pilgrims, and later incidents at Mina showed the dangers of crowd movement and temporary accommodation. A fire in Mina in 1997 also led to renewed concern about tent safety, although this was at the end of the 20th century and continued to shape later reforms.

Responses included better roads, tunnels, bridges, one-way systems, timetabled movement, medical posts and fire-resistant tents. These measures show that Hajj in the modern period became not only a religious event but also one of the world’s largest logistical operations.

There is a possible criticism: heavy organisation may make Hajj feel less spontaneous and more controlled. Pilgrims may be moved in groups, follow strict schedules and rely on officials. Yet the opposing view is that without order, the spiritual purpose of Hajj could be lost in danger and disorder. A balanced exam response should recognise that safety measures may limit some personal freedom but protect the ability of millions to worship.

Key Term: Mina
The area near Makkah where pilgrims stay during Hajj and perform the stoning of the Jamarat.

Politics, protest and religious unity

Hajj symbolises unity, but the 20th century also showed that the pilgrimage could be affected by political conflict. Since Muslims come from many countries, wider tensions sometimes appeared during Hajj. National rivalries, sectarian tensions and disputes over leadership of the Muslim world could affect the atmosphere of pilgrimage.

One major incident was the seizure of the Grand Mosque in Makkah in 1979 by an armed group opposed to the Saudi rulers. This event shocked the Muslim world because the Grand Mosque is Islam’s holiest site. It raised questions about security, authority and the protection of sacred space. Although it was not part of the normal Hajj rites, it affected the modern history of Makkah and Saudi management of holy places.

Another example is the 1987 clash involving Iranian pilgrims and Saudi security forces, during a period of serious tension after the Iranian Revolution and during the Iran-Iraq War. Many people died. This showed how political protest during Hajj could conflict with the aim of worship and unity. Saudi authorities restricted political demonstrations, arguing that Hajj should remain focused on worship. Critics argued that Islam cannot be separated from justice and public witness.

For exam evaluation, this issue is useful because it asks what Hajj is for. Is it only a personal and ritual duty before Allah, or can it also be a place where Muslims express political concerns affecting the ummah? Many Muslims would say Hajj has social and moral meaning, but the rites must not be disrupted or lives put at risk. A strong answer will explain that Hajj unites Muslims spiritually, but the real Muslim world includes political differences.

Exam Warning: Avoid saying “Hajj became political in the 20th century” as if it had never involved authority before. Rulers have long protected, funded or influenced pilgrimage routes. What changed was the scale of global media, state control and international political tension.

Did 20th-century developments change the meaning of Hajj

The central debate is whether 20th-century developments strengthened or weakened Hajj as an expression of religious identity.

The case for strengthening is clear. Modern transport enabled far more Muslims to perform a pillar of Islam. Better security reduced old dangers. Health systems protected pilgrims. Saudi-funded expansion allowed larger gatherings. The global nature of Hajj became more visible, making the ummah more than an abstract idea. A Muslim from Britain, Malaysia, Nigeria or Bosnia could stand beside Muslims from many other places and experience equality before Allah.

The case for weakening focuses on commercialisation, state control and comfort. Expensive travel packages can create inequality between wealthy and poorer pilgrims. Luxury hotels near the Grand Mosque may seem to conflict with the simplicity of ihram. Large-scale building projects may be seen by some as reducing the older character of Makkah. Strict organisation can make Hajj feel managed by bureaucracy rather than shaped by personal devotion.

A balanced conclusion is that the religious meaning of Hajj depends on intention, obedience and worship, not on the age of the transport system. A pilgrim who flies to Jeddah can still enter ihram sincerely, repent at Arafat and experience unity with the ummah. At the same time, modern developments create real challenges. The best exam answers recognise both: Hajj’s core rites remained stable, while the conditions surrounding those rites changed greatly in the 20th century.

Key Point Checklist

This article has covered the following key knowledge points:

• Hajj is one of the Five Pillars and is required once in life for Muslims who are able.
• Hajj expresses religious identity through obedience, equality, repentance and unity.
• The main rites of Hajj did not change in the 20th century.
• Ihram symbolises purity, restraint and equality before Allah.
• Tawaf, sa‘i, Arafat, Mina, Muzdalifah, Jamarat and sacrifice remain central rites.
• Modern transport, especially ships, motor vehicles and aircraft, increased access to Hajj.
• Rising pilgrim numbers made Hajj more visibly global but harder to manage safely.
• Saudi control of Makkah and Madinah shaped modern Hajj administration.
• Saudi oil wealth helped fund roads, mosque expansion, water systems, sanitation and medical care.
• Health regulations and vaccination systems became more significant as Hajj grew.
• Crowd control became essential because of dangers at sites such as the Jamarat.
• Political events such as the 1979 Grand Mosque seizure and the 1987 clashes show that Hajj can be affected by wider Muslim-world tensions.

Key Terms and Concepts

• Hajj
• Ummah
• Ihram
• Tawaf
• Arafat
• Five Pillars
• Jamarat
• Mina