Islam: Religious identity - Sunni and Shi'a prayer practices

Learning Outcomes

• Explain why prayer is a major expression of Muslim religious identity.
• Describe shared Sunni and Shi’a beliefs about salah, purity, qiblah and worship of Allah.
• Compare Sunni and Shi’a approaches to prayer times, combining prayers and bodily actions.
• Identify distinctive Shi’a practices such as use of a turbah and common additions in the adhan.
• Explain Sunni practices such as tarawih and common approaches to congregational prayer.
• Avoid common exam errors about Sunni and Shi’a Islam.
• Use prayer practices to support AO1 explanation and AO2 evaluation in AQA AS answers.

AQA AS Religious Studies (7061) Syllabus

For AQA AS Religious Studies Component 2, the Study of Religion section includes how religious identity is expressed through belief and practice. For Islam, Sunni and Shi’a prayer practices are a useful way to show both unity and diversity within the Muslim community. You need to know accurate factual detail, but also be able to discuss why different practices matter for identity, authority and belonging.

• Prayer as an expression of Islamic identity and submission to Allah.
• Shared commitment to the five daily prayers and the direction of prayer.
• Sunni and Shi’a differences in prayer times and combining prayers.
• Differences in posture, hand position, prostration and recitation.
• Shi’a use of the turbah and its link with Karbala and natural earth.
• Differences in the adhan, especially common Shi’a additions.
• Sunni and Shi’a attitudes to congregational prayer, Jumu’ah and Ramadan prayers.
• The significance of these practices for unity, diversity and authority in Islam.

Test Your Knowledge

Attempt these questions before reading this article. If you find some difficult or cannot remember the answers, look more closely at that area during your revision.

1. Why should Sunni and Shi’a Muslims be described as branches of Islam rather than separate religions?
2. What does it mean when Shi’a Muslims combine prayers?
3. What is a turbah, and why might it be used in Shi’a prayer?
4. Give two differences between common Sunni and Shi’a prayer practices.
5. Why might prayer practices be relevant to religious identity?

Introduction

Prayer is one of the clearest ways Muslims express religious identity. Islam is not only a set of beliefs; it is also a way of life shaped by worship, discipline and obedience to Allah. The regular pattern of prayer gives structure to each day and connects Muslims to the worldwide community of believers. In the AQA AS Islam topic, Sunni and Shi’a prayer practices help you show that Islam contains both shared foundations and internal diversity.

Sunni and Shi’a Muslims are not members of two separate religions. They are branches of Islam. Both affirm the oneness of Allah, the authority of the Qur’an, the prophethood of Muhammad, and the need to worship Allah. Their historical division began mainly over leadership after the Prophet Muhammad: Sunnis emphasised the leadership of the caliphs and the consensus of the Muslim community, while Shi’a Muslims gave special authority to Ali and the family of the Prophet. These different sources of authority have affected legal traditions and some prayer practices.

Key Term: Salah
The obligatory Muslim prayer performed at set times each day, involving recitation, standing, bowing and prostration before Allah.

Although both branches perform five obligatory prayers, Shi’a Muslims may combine the midday and afternoon prayers and the sunset and night prayers, so these are often completed in three periods. These variations in practice do not change the shared purpose of turning towards Allah in worship, which expresses tawhid.

Key Term: Tawhid
The belief in the absolute oneness and uniqueness of Allah; the central belief shared by all Muslims.

Shared foundations of Sunni and Shi’a prayer

The most exam-safe starting point is that Sunni and Shi’a Muslims share far more in prayer than they differ over. Both see prayer as worship of Allah alone. Prayer is not directed to imams, saints or ancestors; it is directed to Allah. This links directly to Tawhid, because the believer’s body, speech and intention are focused on the one God.

Both Sunni and Shi’a Muslims accept the importance of the five daily prayers. These are commonly known as:

• Fajr: dawn prayer.
• Zuhr: midday prayer.
• Asr: afternoon prayer.
• Maghrib: sunset prayer.
• Isha: night prayer.

The performance of prayer also has shared features. Muslims face the qiblah, the direction of the Ka‘bah in Makkah. They perform ritual purification before prayer. They recite from the Qur’an, especially Surah al-Fatihah, and use repeated bodily movements such as standing, bowing and prostrating. These actions show humility before Allah.

Key Term: Ummah
The worldwide community of Muslims, united by shared belief, worship and belonging to Islam.

Although Sunni and Shi’a Muslims belong to the same ummah, some prayer details differ between them. For example, a Shi’a Muslim may prostrate with their forehead on a small clay tablet called a turbah, while the number and sequence of rak‘ahs remain central to the prayer. Recognising these shared structures and visible variations helps explain how a rak‘ah is performed.

Key Term: Rak'ah
A unit of Muslim prayer made up of set actions and recitations, including standing, bowing and prostration.

The shared structure of prayer is a strong expression of the Ummah. A Muslim praying in Britain, Pakistan, Iran, Saudi Arabia or Nigeria may belong to a different legal school or branch of Islam, but the basic identity of being Muslim is expressed through salah. This is useful for evaluation: differences exist, but they do not remove the shared Islamic identity.

Prayer is also tied to intention, known as niyyah. The worshipper should know which prayer is being performed and should intend to pray for the sake of Allah. This shows that prayer is not only physical performance. It is an act of submission, remembrance and obedience.

Test Tip: In exam answers, begin with shared beliefs before explaining differences. This prevents the common error of making Sunni and Shi’a Islam sound like two separate religions.

Prayer times and combining prayers

A key difference concerns the timing of daily prayers. Sunni Muslims usually perform the five daily prayers at five separate times. This pattern strongly marks the day and creates regular pauses for worship. It can be used to show discipline and obedience, because the believer repeatedly turns away from ordinary activity to remember Allah.

Shi’a Muslims also accept five daily prayers, but many Shi’a Muslims commonly combine Zuhr with Asr, and Maghrib with Isha. This means the five prayers may be performed at three prayer times rather than five separate occasions. This is not the same as reducing the number of prayers. The five prayers remain five prayers, but two pairs may be prayed one after the other.

For example, a Shi’a Muslim may pray Zuhr and then immediately pray Asr during the midday period. Later, after sunset, they may pray Maghrib and then Isha. This is often linked to Shi’a legal interpretation, especially in Twelver Shi’a Islam and the Ja‘fari school of law. Shi’a Muslims may argue that combining prayers is permitted and was practised in some circumstances by the Prophet Muhammad.

Sunni Muslims may also combine prayers in certain situations, such as travel, illness or difficulty, depending on the legal school. However, the usual Sunni pattern is to keep the five prayer times distinct. This means you should avoid saying “Sunnis never combine prayers.” A more accurate statement is that combining is a normal and regular Shi’a practice, while Sunnis more commonly reserve it for specific circumstances.

The difference over combining prayers is not just a technical detail. It shows how authority works in Islam. Sunni Muslims tend to follow one of the Sunni schools of law, such as Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi‘i or Hanbali. Shi’a Muslims, especially Twelver Shi’a, often follow Ja‘fari jurisprudence, associated with the teachings of Imam Ja‘far al-Sadiq. Therefore, prayer practice reflects deeper views about religious authority.

Key Term: Wudu
Ritual washing before prayer, carried out so that the worshipper is in a state of purity before Allah.

There are also some differences in wudu. Sunni Muslims generally wash the feet as part of ablution. Shi’a Muslims commonly wipe the feet with wet hands rather than washing them fully. Both are acts of purification, but they follow different legal interpretations. This is a useful detail for AO1 because it shows precise knowledge beyond general statements such as “they pray differently.”

Exam Warning: Do not write that Shi’a Muslims pray only three times a day. A better answer is: Shi’a Muslims perform the five daily prayers but often combine them into three prayer periods.

Ritual details: posture, prostration and recitation

Sunni and Shi’a prayer can look slightly different, especially to someone observing the prayer from outside. These differences are usually not about different gods or different aims. They are about inherited legal traditions and understandings of how the Prophet and early Muslim community prayed.

One visible difference concerns the position of the hands during standing. Many Sunni Muslims fold their hands during prayer, often placing them over the chest or below the navel depending on the school of law. Shi’a Muslims usually stand with their arms by their sides. Both positions are intended to show reverence and obedience. The difference lies in which reports and legal interpretations are followed.

Another significant difference concerns prostration. In salah, Muslims prostrate by placing the forehead on the ground. This is one of the strongest physical signs of submission to Allah. Shi’a Muslims often place the forehead on a small piece of natural clay or earth called a turbah. Many turbahs are made from clay associated with Karbala, the place where Husayn, the grandson of the Prophet, was killed.

Key Term: Turbah
A small tablet, usually made of natural clay or earth, used by many Shi’a Muslims for prostration during prayer.

The turbah must not be misunderstood. Shi’a Muslims do not worship the turbah. It is not an idol. It is used because prostration should be made on natural earth or something that comes from it. If the turbah is from Karbala, it may also remind the worshipper of Husayn’s sacrifice, justice and loyalty to Allah. This gives Shi’a prayer a strong connection to memory and identity.

Sunni Muslims usually prostrate directly on a prayer mat, carpet or clean surface. They generally do not use a turbah. Some Sunni Muslims may misunderstand the Shi’a practice, so in an exam answer it is useful to explain it carefully and avoid hostile or inaccurate language.

There are also differences in recitation. In many Sunni prayers, worshippers say “Amin” after Surah al-Fatihah, sometimes aloud in audible prayers depending on the school. Shi’a Muslims generally do not say “Amin” in the same way during salah. Shi’a Muslims also commonly include qunut, a supplication made while standing with raised hands, in the second rak‘ah of many prayers. Sunni practice varies: qunut may be used in Witr prayer, in Fajr according to some schools, or in special circumstances.

Key Term: Qunut
A supplication made during prayer, often while standing with raised hands; common in Shi’a prayers and used in some Sunni contexts.

The adhan, the call to prayer, also shows difference. Sunni and Shi’a Muslims share the main declarations: Allah is greatest, there is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah. Shi’a Muslims may add phrases such as “I bear witness that Ali is the friend of Allah” and “Come to the best of deeds.” The statement about Ali is widely used in Shi’a communities but is usually not treated as an original obligatory part of the adhan in the same way as the core declarations. It expresses Shi’a devotion to Ali and belief in his special status.

Key Term: Adhan
The Islamic call to prayer, announced before the obligatory prayers and containing declarations of Allah’s greatness and Muhammad’s prophethood.

These variations can be understood within religious pluralism, since Article 9 of the European Convention on Human Rights protects freedom of thought, conscience and religion. In an exam, use the adhan alongside a prayer-position example to show how shared beliefs can be expressed through different traditions, rather than presenting the practices as unrelated facts.

Test Tip: Strong answers link facts to meaning. Do not only list differences such as “arms folded” or “arms by sides”; explain how these differences express authority, tradition and identity.

Congregational prayer, Jumu’ah and Ramadan practices

Prayer may be performed individually, but congregational prayer has high value in Islam. It expresses unity, equality and discipline. Muslims stand shoulder to shoulder, facing the same direction, following the imam. This can be used in exam answers to show that prayer is not only private devotion; it is also a social and communal expression of identity.

Key Term: Jumu'ah
The Friday congregational prayer, including a sermon, performed in place of the normal Zuhr prayer.

For Sunni Muslims, Jumu’ah is generally obligatory for adult Muslim men who are able to attend, though women may attend and many do. It includes a khutbah, or sermon, and a congregational prayer. Jumu’ah strengthens community identity because Muslims gather weekly, listen to teaching, and publicly affirm their membership of the Ummah.

Shi’a Muslims also practise Friday prayer, but the legal status has been discussed differently in Shi’a history. In Twelver Shi’a Islam, some debate has existed because of the occultation of the Twelfth Imam. Some Shi’a scholars have seen Jumu’ah as obligatory when led by a properly qualified authority, while others have regarded it as strongly recommended or conditionally obligatory. In many Shi’a communities today, Friday prayer is a significant public practice, especially where there is recognised religious leadership.

This difference again shows that prayer is connected with authority. For Shi’a Muslims, the role of the Imam and qualified scholars has special weight. For Sunni Muslims, the authority of the wider community, the Qur’an, Sunnah and legal schools shapes the practice.

Ramadan prayers also show difference. Sunni Muslims commonly perform tarawih, extra night prayers in Ramadan, often in congregation at the mosque. Tarawih is a major feature of Sunni Ramadan life. The mosque may be full each night, and the Qur’an may be recited over the month. This builds communal identity and expresses devotion during the holiest month.

Many Shi’a Muslims do not practise tarawih as a congregational prayer in the same way. They may perform extra recommended prayers during Ramadan, but often individually rather than as the Sunni tarawih congregation. Shi’a objections are often linked to the view that certain recommended prayers should not be institutionalised as congregational worship unless there is clear authority for doing so.

This is a strong example for AO2 discussion. A student could argue that shared daily salah is more significant than differences over tarawih, because obligatory prayer unites all Muslims. Another student could argue that visible practices such as tarawih or the turbah are powerful identity markers because they distinguish communities in everyday worship.

There are also differences in the role of religious leadership. Sunni prayer is led by an imam, but this imam is not usually understood as having the same spiritual authority as the Shi’a Imams. In Shi’a Islam, the Imams, beginning with Ali, are seen as divinely guided leaders with special authority. Although the person leading a local prayer is not one of the Twelve Imams, Shi’a prayer identity is shaped by loyalty to the Ahl al-Bayt, the family of the Prophet.

This means that Sunni and Shi’a prayer practices can be studied at two levels:

• Practical level: timing, posture, prostration, adhan and extra prayers.
• Theological level: authority, leadership, memory, community and identity.

The best exam answers bring these levels together. For example, the use of a turbah is a practical detail, but it also points to Shi’a memory of Karbala, reverence for Husayn and the importance of sacrifice. Similarly, Sunni tarawih is a practical Ramadan prayer, but it also expresses Sunni communal worship and continuity with Sunni tradition.

Key Point Checklist

This article has covered the following key knowledge points:

• Sunni and Shi’a Muslims are branches of Islam, not separate religions.
• Both share belief in Tawhid, the Qur’an, prophethood and worship of Allah.
• Salah is a central expression of Muslim identity and obedience to Allah.
• Both Sunni and Shi’a Muslims accept the five daily prayers.
• Sunni Muslims usually pray the five prayers at five separate times.
• Shi’a Muslims often combine Zuhr with Asr and Maghrib with Isha, while still performing five prayers.
• Sunni Muslims commonly fold their hands in prayer, while Shi’a Muslims usually keep arms by their sides.
• Shi’a Muslims often prostrate on a turbah made from natural earth or clay.
• The turbah is not worshipped; it is a surface for prostration and may recall Karbala.
• Shi’a Muslims may include additions in the adhan expressing the status of Ali.
• Sunni Muslims commonly perform tarawih in congregation during Ramadan.
• Prayer differences often reflect deeper differences about authority, tradition and religious identity.

Key Terms and Concepts

• Salah
• Tawhid
• Ummah
• Rak'ah
• Wudu
• Turbah
• Qunut
• Adhan
• Jumu'ah