Common logical fallacies and reasoning errors - Appeals to e...

Learning Outcomes

After reading this article, you will be able to identify and explain the most commonly tested LSAT logical fallacies involving appeals to emotion, popularity, and authority. You will understand how these errors occur in arguments, recognize typical exam triggers, describe why such reasoning is fallacious, and select or eliminate answer choices involving these flaws in multiple-choice questions. Proficiency of this material supports accurate flaw, strengthen, weaken, and method of reasoning responses.

LSAT Syllabus

For the LSAT, you are required to understand how and why arguments fail due to appeals to emotion, popularity, or authority. These fallacies feature in flaw questions and can also appear in strengthen/weaken and parallel reasoning questions.

In the context of LSAT revision, you should focus on:

• Identifying flawed reasoning involving emotional or irrelevant appeals.
• Understanding when the authority cited is not relevant or not credible.
• Distinguishing popular opinion from valid logical support.
• Explaining why emotional, popular, or authoritative appeals do not guarantee logical validity or truth of a conclusion.

Make sure your preparation includes close review of argument structures where these issues are likely.

Test Your Knowledge

Attempt these questions before reading this article. If you find some difficult or cannot remember the answers, remember to look more closely at that area during your revision.

1. Which of the following is most likely to be a flaw based on appeal to popularity?
   1. "Experts agree that this diet is best."
   2. "This law is just because most citizens support it."
   3. "It is wrong since it harms others."
   4. "It is right because the Constitution requires it."
2. In an LSAT argument, when does citing an authority amount to a flaw?
   1. "When the authority has relevant specialized knowledge."
   2. "When the authority is not recognized on that topic."
   3. "When the authority gives supporting evidence."
   4. "When the authority is a scientist discussing a legal matter."
3. Which fallacy describes an argument that uses emotional language to prompt agreement, rather than presenting logical reasons?
   1. Ad hominem
   2. Circular reasoning
   3. Appeal to emotion
   4. Strawman

4. True or false? A majority view is always a valid basis for concluding that an argument is correct.

Introduction

LSAT arguments frequently contain flaws based on irrelevant appeals—to emotion, to popularity, or to outside authority. For the LSAT, it is essential to recognize when an argument offers these sorts of appeals instead of logical support. These flaws undermine the credibility of an argument and are commonly tested in flaw, strengthen/weaken, and method of reasoning questions. This article provides direct, exam-oriented guidance on recognizing and handling such flawed arguments.

Key Term: logical fallacy
An error in reasoning that weakens an argument by relying on illegitimate or irrelevant support rather than sound logic.

Flaws Based on Appeals

Some arguments attempt to win agreement not by evidence, but by appealing to emotion, popular opinion, or to someone’s reputation rather than to relevant specialized knowledge. LSAT questions may explicitly ask you to name this flaw, spot it in an argument, or select the answer that accounts for it.

Key Term: appeal to emotion
A reasoning error in which the arguer relies on emotional triggers (fear, pity, anger, pride) to convince the audience, rather than on logical or factual reasons.

Key Term: appeal to popularity
A fallacy in which an argument claims that something is true or right simply because many or most people believe, support, or endorse it.

Key Term: appeal to authority
Citing someone as support for a conclusion based on their status or reputation, rather than providing relevant evidence. This is a flaw when the authority is not an expert in the field discussed or when specialized knowledge is irrelevant to the claim.

Worked Example 1.1

Argument: "Most people in this city agree that the new recycling program is necessary. Therefore, it must be the best way to reduce waste."

Answer:
The argument commits the appeal to popularity fallacy. It assumes that widespread support makes a policy the best. Popularity does not guarantee logical or practical superiority.

Worked Example 1.2

Argument: "A leading actor warns that using plastic bottles destroys the environment, so we should all use metal bottles."

Answer:
This is an appeal to authority flaw. The argument relies on the claims of an entertainer, not an expert in environmental science. The cited authority is not relevant to the specific issue.

Worked Example 1.3

Argument: "Unless you want animals to suffer horribly, you must support this legislation banning all animal research."

Answer:
This is an appeal to emotion. The argument uses vivid and distressing language to provoke agreement, substituting emotional impact for logical justification or empirical support.

Identifying Each Flaw Type

Appeal to Emotion

An argument appeals to emotion if it relies on emotionally charged descriptions, attempts to manipulate sympathy, triggers fear, or seeks agreement based on how you feel rather than on logic.

• Words or phrases like "unfair," "cruel," "tragic," or vivid depictions of suffering
• Tactics that urge you to act from anger, pride, or patriotism instead of facts

LSAT flaw and method questions might describe this as:

• "the argument appeals to emotion rather than reason,"
• "attempts to support a conclusion purely by arousing feelings"

Appeal to Popularity

Arguments appeal to popularity when they defend a claim simply because it is widely held or accepted.

• Phrases like “everyone knows,” “statistics show most people agree,” or “the majority believes”
• Claims that something is right, just, or necessary merely because of popular support

Correct LSAT answer choices may phrase this as:

• "treats widespread belief as evidence that a claim is true,"
• "infers the correctness of an action based solely on general approval,"

Appeal to Authority

Arguments appeal to authority when they rely on the reputation, fame, or position of someone, not on relevant specialized knowledge or reasoning.

• Citing an expert from an unrelated or irrelevant field
• Basing support solely on "according to Dr. X," when Dr. X’s credentials do not cover the issue
• Assuming that a claim is true just because an expert or leader says so, without further justification

On the LSAT, answer choices may include:

• “relies on inappropriate authority,”
• “infers a claim is true merely because it is endorsed by experts”

Exam Warning Not all uses of authority are logically flawed. If the person cited is a genuine expert on the exact subject in question (e.g., a medical doctor on surgery techniques), and their claim is within their field, it is not a fallacy. The flaw only arises when there is a mismatch between the authority's specialized knowledge and the subject or when reputation outweighs reasoning.

How Flaw Questions Test These Issues

Flaw-type questions may explicitly name or ask about emotional, popular, or authoritative reasoning. Example stems:

• “Which of the following describes the flaw in the argument’s reasoning?”
• “Which of the following most accurately describes a questionable technique used by the argument?”

These flaws may also appear as incorrect reasoning in parallel flaw questions, or as part of the reasoning to attack or defend in strengthen or weaken questions.

Revision Tip

Practice quickly distinguishing factual premises from appeals designed to trigger feelings, conformism, or deference. Rephrase emotional or popular statements into neutral ones during review to check if the argument retains logical force.

Summary

Key Point Checklist

This article has covered the following key knowledge points:

• Appeals to emotion, popularity, and authority are common LSAT flaws that substitute non-logical influence for valid evidence.
• Appeal to emotion uses strong or evocative language to win the audience’s agreement.
• Appeal to popularity treats widespread agreement or belief as proof of correctness.
• Appeal to authority treats someone’s opinion as proof, regardless of their actual relevant specialized knowledge.
• Misuse of authority is a flaw only if the authority lacks relevant subject knowledge.
• Recognizing these flaws is essential for identifying, eliminating, or selecting correct LSAT answers in flaw and parallel reasoning questions.

Key Terms and Concepts

• logical fallacy
• appeal to emotion
• appeal to popularity
• appeal to authority