PastPaperHero | Presentation of evidence

Learning Outcomes

This article explains judicial control over the presentation of evidence on the MBE, including:

Distinguishing judge-decided questions of admissibility, preliminary facts, and conditional relevance from jury questions of weight, credibility, and ultimate fact-finding.
Identifying when and how to make timely, specific objections, motions to strike, and offers of proof to preserve evidentiary issues for appellate review.
Evaluating when limiting instructions are required for evidence that is admissible for a limited purpose or against fewer than all parties under FRE 105.
Applying the rule of completeness to writings and recordings to prevent misleading excerpts and to overcome certain hearsay and relevance objections.
Analyzing judicial discretion over the mode and order of proof, including the exclusion of cumulative or unfairly prejudicial evidence and control of leading questions.
Using motions in limine, continuing objections, and proceedings outside the jury’s presence to manage evidentiary disputes efficiently and protect the record.
Assessing whether alleged evidentiary errors are properly preserved, waived, or reviewable only for plain error on MBE-style multiple-choice questions.
Translating doctrinal rules into structured approaches for tackling bar exam fact patterns involving judicial control of the presentation of evidence.

MBE Syllabus

For the MBE, you are required to understand judicial control over the presentation of evidence, with a focus on the following syllabus points:

The judge’s power to rule on the admissibility and limited admissibility of evidence.
The process and timing of objections, motions to strike, and offers of proof to preserve error.
The role of preliminary questions and conditional relevance (judge vs. jury).
The court’s discretion over the mode and order of presenting evidence, including excluding cumulative or unfairly prejudicial proof.
The use of limiting instructions, curative instructions, and the rule of completeness.
Appellate review, including plain error when no objection was made.

Test Your Knowledge

Attempt these questions before reading this article. If you find some difficult or cannot remember the answers, remember to look more closely at that area during your revision.

Who decides whether evidence is admissible at trial?
1. The jury
2. The judge
3. The parties by stipulation
4. The witness
When evidence is admissible for one purpose but not another, what must the court do upon request?
1. Exclude the evidence entirely
2. Give a limiting instruction to the jury
3. Allow the jury to decide how to use the evidence
4. Refer the issue to a special referee
If a party wishes to challenge the exclusion of evidence on appeal, what must they do at trial?
1. File a motion in limine only
2. Make an objection or offer of proof on the record
3. Wait until after the verdict
4. Ask the jury to disregard the evidence

Introduction

In every trial, the court plays a central role in controlling how evidence is presented. The judge decides which evidence the jury may consider, how it is introduced, and what instructions are given about its use. Understanding these controls is essential for answering MBE questions on evidence and for effective trial advocacy.

The American system is adversarial: parties choose what evidence to offer and what objections to raise. But the judge is the gatekeeper. The judge rules on the admissibility of evidence, manages the trial’s flow, and protects the jury from unfairly prejudicial material.

Key Term: Admissibility
The legal determination by the judge that evidence may be considered by the trier of fact.

Judicial Authority Over Evidence

As a general rule, questions of law are for the judge; questions of fact are for the jury. In the evidence context, this means:

The judge decides all legal questions about whether evidence is admissible (e.g., privilege, hearsay exceptions, Rule 403 balancing).
The jury decides what weight to give admitted evidence and resolves most disputed historical facts.

Key Term: Preliminary Question
A threshold question (e.g., whether a privilege exists or a hearsay exception’s requirements are met) that must be resolved before evidence can properly be admitted.

The Federal Rules of Evidence (mirrored on the MBE) distinguish:

Preliminary questions for the judge (FRE 104(a)): e.g., whether a witness is qualified, whether a privilege applies, whether a hearsay exception’s conditions are satisfied. The judge may consider almost any information, including inadmissible evidence, in resolving these questions.
Preliminary questions of conditional relevance for the jury (FRE 104(b)): where the relevance of evidence depends on another fact (e.g., whether an agency relationship exists), the judge screens only for “sufficient evidence” from which a reasonable jury could find the preliminary fact. The jury then decides if that fact actually exists.

Key Term: Conditional Relevance
Evidence that is relevant only if some additional fact is true (e.g., a statement is relevant to show notice only if the party heard it).

MBE angle: Be ready to identify whether the judge must finally decide the preliminary fact (competency, privilege, hearsay exception) or simply determine there is enough for the jury to consider it (conditional relevance).

Rulings on Evidence and Objections

When a party offers evidence, the opposing party may challenge it by objecting. The judge must then rule on the objection.

Key Term: Objection
A formal statement by a party challenging the introduction of evidence or a question at trial.

If the objection is:

Sustained: the evidence is excluded (or the question may not be answered).
Overruled: the evidence is admitted.

The judge may also raise admissibility issues sua sponte (on the court’s own initiative) if necessary to enforce the rules of evidence, although in practice most issues are triggered by party objections.

Making and Preserving Objections

To preserve an evidentiary issue for appeal, a party generally must:

Make a timely objection—usually as soon as the ground for objection becomes apparent.
State the specific ground for the objection, unless it is obvious from the context.

If evidence is admitted over objection, the objecting party has preserved the ruling for appeal. If the judge sustains the objection, the offering party must take further steps (offer of proof) to preserve the exclusion for review.

Key Term: Motion to Strike
A request that the court order the jury to disregard testimony already given, often used when an answer is unresponsive or a ruling changes after the answer.

If inadmissible information comes in (e.g., a witness blurts out prejudicial matter before an objection), the judge can:

Sustain an objection to further questions on that topic.
Grant a motion to strike the improper testimony.
Issue a curative instruction telling the jury to disregard it.

Key Term: Curative Instruction
A directive from the judge instructing the jury to ignore specific evidence that was improperly admitted or mentioned.

Key Term: Continuing Objection
A single objection that the court allows to cover a series of similar questions or pieces of evidence on the same ground, avoiding repeated objections.

MBE questions often test whether an error was preserved. Look for:

A contemporaneous, specific objection or motion to strike; or
An offer of proof when evidence was excluded.

If no such step appears in the facts, assume the issue is not preserved—unless the question is explicitly about plain error (see below).

Offers of Proof

If the judge excludes evidence, the proponent must make an offer of proof to preserve the issue for appeal by explaining what the evidence would have shown and why it is admissible.

Key Term: Offer of Proof
A statement on the record describing excluded evidence and its relevance, made to preserve the issue for appellate review.

An offer of proof typically occurs outside the jury’s hearing. There are several common forms:

Witness offer: the proponent questions the witness outside the jury’s presence, creating a Q-and-A record of the excluded testimony.
Lawyer offer: counsel summarizes, in narrative form, what the witness would say and why it matters.
Tangible offer: the proponent marks and tenders the excluded exhibit, which itself becomes the offer of proof.

An offer of proof is not necessary if the substance of the evidence is obvious from the context—e.g., everyone plainly understands what the evidence would be and why it was offered.

Limiting Instructions and Limited Admissibility

Sometimes evidence is admissible for one purpose but inadmissible for another, or admissible against one party but not another. For example, a prior inconsistent statement may be admissible to impeach a witness, but not as substantive proof of the facts asserted.

Key Term: Limited Admissibility
The situation where evidence is admissible for one proper purpose or against one party, but not for other purposes or against other parties.

Key Term: Limiting Instruction
A direction from the judge to the jury specifying the limited purpose or party for which evidence may be considered.

Under FRE 105 (tested on the MBE):

Upon request of the objecting party, the court must give a limiting instruction directing the jury to use the evidence only for the proper purpose.
If no party requests a limiting instruction, the judge is generally not required to give one, and the limiting use argument may be waived on appeal.

This is a classic MBE trap: evidence that initially looks inadmissible (e.g., prior bad acts, hearsay within a hearsay exception) may be admissible for a limited purpose, but only if accompanied by a limiting instruction on request.

Mode and Order of Presenting Evidence

The trial judge has broad authority to control the way evidence is presented.

Key Term: Judicial Discretion
The authority of the judge to make decisions on procedural and evidentiary matters based on fairness, efficiency, and the rules of evidence.

This includes discretion to:

Determine the order in which parties present their cases and witnesses.
Allow or disallow leading questions (generally permitted on cross, restricted on direct).
Exclude cumulative evidence that wastes time or needlessly repeats matters already established.
Protect witnesses from harassment or undue embarrassment.
Control the time spent on particular issues to avoid delay and confusion.

The judge also decides whether to sequester witnesses so they do not hear each other’s testimony.

Key Term: Witness Sequestration
The practice of excluding witnesses from the courtroom so they cannot hear other witnesses’ testimony, usually granted on a party’s request and sometimes ordered by the court.

Under FRE 615, if a party moves to exclude non-party witnesses, the court must generally order sequestration. This is another example of judicial control over the presentation of evidence.

Rule of Completeness

When one party introduces part of a writing or recorded statement, there is a risk the jury will be misled by a fragment taken out of context. To address this, FRE 106 provides the rule of completeness.

Key Term: Rule of Completeness
A rule allowing an adverse party to require admission of other parts of a writing or recording that in fairness should be considered at the same time as the portion already introduced.

If a party introduces part of a written or recorded statement, the opposing party may:

Immediately introduce other portions that are necessary for context, even if it is not yet their “turn” in the case.
Introduce related writings or recordings that in fairness should be viewed with the initial excerpt.

The judge controls when these additional parts come in and may overrule objections based on hearsay or other grounds if completeness demands admission.

Preserving Error for Appeal and Plain Error

To challenge an evidentiary ruling on appeal, a party ordinarily must:

Make a timely and specific objection or motion to strike if evidence was admitted and should have been excluded; or
Make an effective offer of proof if evidence was excluded and should have been admitted.

Failure to do so usually waives the issue.

Key Term: Plain Error
A clear and obvious error affecting substantial rights that an appellate court may correct even though no objection or offer of proof was made at trial.

Under the plain error rule, an appellate court may sometimes reverse despite the lack of a trial objection where:

The error is obvious on its face, and
Leaving it uncorrected would result in a miscarriage of justice.

Plain error is rare and reserved for truly serious mistakes (e.g., admission of highly prejudicial evidence with no conceivable permissible use). On the MBE, if the facts show no objection and no offer of proof, assume the issue is waived unless the question explicitly asks about plain error.

Motions in Limine and Definitive Rulings

Many evidentiary disputes are raised before trial through a motion in limine.

Key Term: Motion in Limine
A pretrial motion asking the court to admit or exclude anticipated evidence before it is offered at trial.

A motion in limine allows the judge to rule on an evidentiary issue without the jury present, reducing the risk that inadmissible information will be heard. If the judge makes a definitive ruling on the record, a party usually need not re-object at trial to preserve the issue for appeal.

If the ruling is tentative, however, counsel must renew the objection when the evidence is offered.

Additional Trial-Management Tools

The judge’s control over the presentation of evidence also includes:

Directing offers of proof and objections outside the jury’s presence to prevent exposing the jury to excluded material.
Giving curative instructions when improper matter is mentioned.
Allowing continuing objections to spare repetitive objections on the same ground.
Managing unresponsive answers by granting motions to strike on request of examining counsel.

These tools all serve the dual goals of fairness to the parties and clarity for the jury.

Worked Example 1.1

During a civil trial, the plaintiff seeks to introduce a prior conviction of the defendant to impeach credibility. The defendant objects, arguing the conviction is too old. The judge sustains the objection and excludes the evidence. The plaintiff’s attorney asks to make an offer of proof outside the presence of the jury, stating that the conviction is for a crime involving dishonesty and occurred eight years ago.

Answer:
The attorney’s offer of proof preserves the issue for appeal by explaining the nature and relevance of the excluded evidence. If the appellate court finds the exclusion was error (for example, if the conviction meets the rule for crimen falsi), the record will show what evidence was kept from the jury and whether the error was harmless or prejudicial.

Worked Example 1.2

In a criminal case, evidence of the defendant’s prior bad act is admitted to show motive, but not to prove character. The defense requests a limiting instruction. What must the judge do?

Answer:
The judge must give a limiting instruction directing the jury to consider the evidence only for the permissible purpose of showing motive, not as proof of the defendant’s character or propensity to commit the crime. Failure to give the instruction after a proper request would be error.

Worked Example 1.3

At trial, the plaintiff offers a portion of the defendant’s email: “As you know, the safety valve failed during testing.” Defense counsel objects that the remainder of the email contains hearsay and should not come in. The plaintiff argues the rest is necessary for context and asks to have the full email admitted.

Answer:
Under the rule of completeness, the judge may permit the adverse party (here, the defendant) to require admission of other parts of the email that are necessary to understand the quoted portion fairly. The court can admit additional portions even if they contain hearsay, because completeness overrides some evidentiary objections to prevent misleading the jury.

Worked Example 1.4

In a criminal trial, the prosecution introduces graphic photographs of the victim’s injuries. Defense counsel does not object. The defendant is convicted and argues on appeal that the photos were unfairly prejudicial.

Answer:
Because defense counsel did not object at trial, the issue is not preserved for ordinary appellate review. The defendant must rely on the plain error doctrine. An appellate court will reverse only if the admission of the photos was an obvious error that seriously affected the fairness of the proceeding—an exacting standard that is rarely met.

Exam Warning

Evidence admitted for a limited purpose can be highly prejudicial if the jury is not properly instructed. Always consider whether a limiting instruction is required and whether the party requested it. Failure to request a limiting instruction may waive the issue for appeal.

Revision Tip

When reviewing evidence questions, practice identifying (1) whether an objection or offer of proof is needed to preserve an issue for appeal, (2) whether a limiting instruction is required, and (3) whether the question is testing judicial discretion over the mode and order of proof. Remember that the judge—not the jury—decides all questions of admissibility.

Key Point Checklist

This article has covered the following key knowledge points:

The judge decides all questions of law regarding the admissibility of evidence, including most preliminary questions.
Conditional relevance issues are screened by the judge but ultimately decided by the jury if there is sufficient supporting evidence.
Parties must make timely, specific objections or motions to strike to challenge admitted evidence and offers of proof to challenge excluded evidence.
The judge must give limiting instructions when evidence is admissible for one purpose or against one party but not others, if requested.
The rule of completeness allows the adverse party to insist that additional portions of a writing or recording be admitted to avoid misleading the jury.
The judge controls the mode and order of presenting evidence and may exclude cumulative, confusing, or unfairly prejudicial evidence in the interest of fairness and efficiency.
Errors not preserved by objection or offer of proof are generally waived, subject only to the narrow plain error doctrine.
Motions in limine, witness sequestration, curative instructions, and continuing objections are key tools by which courts manage the presentation of evidence.

Key Terms and Concepts

Admissibility
Objection
Offer of Proof
Limiting Instruction
Judicial Discretion
Preliminary Question
Conditional Relevance
Limited Admissibility
Rule of Completeness
Motion to Strike
Curative Instruction
Continuing Objection
Witness Sequestration
Motion in Limine
Plain Error

Presentation of evidence - Control by court