## Facts

- Firestone disposed of industrial wastes at a Class II landfill not authorized to receive hazardous substances, allegedly to reduce disposal costs.
- Over several years, Firestone sent large quantities of wastes (including solvents, oils, sludges, and industrial chemicals) to the site.
- Groundwater monitoring detected contamination beneath or near the site, including carcinogenic organic solvents and related compounds.
- Private wells supplying nearby residents’ domestic water were found contaminated; plaintiffs alleged they ingested the water.
- Plaintiffs did not claim present cancer or other serious disease, but sought damages for (1) emotional distress from fear of developing cancer or other illness and (2) the cost of future medical monitoring to detect disease early.
- A jury returned a substantial verdict for plaintiffs, including awards for fear of cancer and medical monitoring; the Court of Appeal largely affirmed.

## Issues

1. In negligence, may plaintiffs recover emotional distress damages for fear of cancer from toxic exposure when they have no present physical injury or illness?
2. Does Firestone’s conduct support liability for intentional infliction of emotional distress under the “extreme and outrageous” standard?
3. Are future medical monitoring costs recoverable as damages when exposure increased risk but caused no present disease?
4. May evidence of plaintiffs’ other exposures to carcinogens be used to reduce damages through causation analysis or comparative negligence?

## Decision

- The court affirmed in part, reversed in part, and remanded for reconsideration of awards under clarified standards.
- Fear-of-cancer damages in negligence were restricted: absent present physical injury, recovery generally requires proof, supported by reliable medical and scientific opinion, that it is more likely than not the feared cancer will develop from the exposure; a narrower exception permits recovery for serious and reasonable fear when the defendant’s conduct is especially culpable.
- The IIED claim was rejected because the evidence did not show conduct meeting the required level of outrageousness directed at plaintiffs, nor intent (or legally sufficient reckless disregard) to cause severe emotional distress.
- Medical monitoring costs were recognized as a potentially recoverable item of negligence damages when shown to be a reasonably necessary consequence of exposure and medically necessary to a reasonable medical certainty.
- Evidence of plaintiffs’ other carcinogen exposures could be relevant to causation and comparative negligence, but did not automatically bar recovery.

## Legal Principles

- Negligent infliction of emotional distress may be compensable without present physical injury, but fear-of-cancer claims require limiting rules to avoid speculative recovery and open-ended liability.
- Absent present physical injury or illness, fear-of-cancer damages generally require objective proof, via reliable expert opinion, that cancer is probable (more likely than not) due to defendant’s toxic exposure.
- Where defendant’s conduct is particularly egregious (e.g., oppressive, fraudulent, or malicious), a plaintiff without present injury may recover for serious and reasonable fear of cancer even if the risk is less than 50%, so long as the fear is medically reasonable and tied to the exposure.
- IIED requires extreme and outrageous conduct directed at the plaintiff, undertaken with intent to cause severe emotional distress or with reckless disregard of that probability; negligence and regulatory noncompliance alone are insufficient.
- Medical monitoring is an item of economic damages (not a separate cause of action) recoverable upon proof of significant exposure and that future surveillance is reasonably necessary and medically certain to detect onset of disease.
- Evidence of other toxic exposures may support apportionment by showing alternative causation or unreasonable self-exposure under comparative negligence principles.

## Conclusion

The court limited negligence recovery for cancer-fear emotional distress without present injury by requiring objective proof that cancer is probable, while allowing a narrower route to recovery where defendant’s conduct is especially culpable, and it approved medical monitoring as recoverable economic damages when medically necessary and tied to the exposure, remanding for adjustment of awards under these standards.


Potter v. Firestone Tire & Rubber Co., 6 Cal. 4th 965, 863 P.2d 795 (Cal. 1993)