Learning Outcomes
This article explains the classification, interpretation, and exam-focused application of contractual terms—conditions, warranties, and innominate terms—and the consequences of breach for SQE1, including:
- Accurate classification of contract terms into conditions, warranties, and innominate terms and recognition of their relative importance in a fact pattern
- Judicial interpretation of contractual wording and commercial context, the weight given to party-applied labels, and the role of precedent in guiding classification
- Treatment of time obligations, including when “time is of the essence”, the status of mercantile time clauses, and the impact of delay on available remedies
- Application of the Hong Kong Fir “substantially the whole benefit” test to determine whether breach of an innominate term is repudiatory or non-repudiatory
- Operation of statutory classification and remedies under SGA 1979 ss 12–15 and s 15A, and CRA 2015 consumer remedies, in both business and consumer contexts
- Remedies and election following breach, including termination, affirmation, damages, loss of chance, and the strategic risks associated with wrongful termination
- Use of leading authorities such as Schuler v Wickman, Bunge v Tradax, Cehave v Bremer, and Ampurius v Telford to justify classification and remedy analysis in exam answers
- Structured approaches to analysing contractual disputes and identifying the most appropriate legal outcome in SQE1-style single best answer and short-scenario questions
SQE1 Syllabus
For SQE1, you are required to demonstrate knowledge of how contractual terms are classified and the implications of that classification, including identifying whether a term is a condition, warranty, or innominate term based on the facts provided and determining the remedies available to the innocent party upon breach, with a focus on the following syllabus points:
- the distinction between conditions, warranties, and innominate terms
- the remedies associated with breaching each type of term (termination and/or damages)
- the test applied to determine the effect of breaching an innominate term (Hong Kong Fir Shipping)
- how courts determine the classification of a term (express wording, statute, judicial precedent, intention)
- the effect of statutory regimes, including SGA 1979 ss 12–15 and s 15A, and CRA 2015 consumer remedies
- the significance of time stipulations and whether “time is of the essence” is expressed or can be inferred
- the risk of wrongful termination and the need to elect between termination and affirmation
Test Your Knowledge
Attempt these questions before reading this article. If you find some difficult or cannot remember the answers, remember to look more closely at that area during your revision.
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A term that goes to the very root of the contract is likely to be classified as which of the following?
- A warranty
- An innominate term
- A condition
- A representation
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If a party breaches a warranty, what remedy is the innocent party generally entitled to?
- Terminate the contract and claim damages
- Terminate the contract only
- Claim damages only
- Set aside the contract
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Which case established the test for determining the consequences of breaching an innominate term?
- Poussard v Spiers and Pond
- Bettini v Gye
- Hong Kong Fir Shipping Co Ltd v Kawasaki Kisen Kaisha Ltd
- Hadley v Baxendale
Introduction
When a contract is formed, it contains various terms outlining the parties' obligations. Understanding the nature and importance of these terms is fundamental because it determines the consequences if a term is broken (breached). Contract law traditionally categorises terms into conditions and warranties. A third category, innominate terms, has also developed. For SQE1, you must be able to differentiate between these types of terms and understand the remedies available for their breach.
Courts interpret contractual terms by looking at the wording of the contract and the context in which it was made. Clear language is applied according to its natural meaning; where language is ambiguous, commercial common sense can assist. However, commercial imprudence alone does not justify re-interpreting a clear clause (Arnold v Britton). These interpretive principles sit alongside the classification rules described below, which determine what happens when a term is breached.
CLASSIFYING CONTRACT TERMS
The classification of a term dictates the remedies available to the innocent party if that term is breached. Courts look at the intention of the parties at the time the contract was made, the contract's wording, relevant statutes, and the consequences of the breach itself.
Conditions
A condition is an essential term of the contract, considered so important that it goes to the root of the agreement. Its performance is fundamental to the contract's main purpose.
Key Term: Condition
A major term of the contract which goes to its root. Breach of a condition entitles the innocent party to terminate the contract and claim damages.
If a condition is breached, the innocent party has the right to choose whether to terminate the contract (treat it as ended) and claim damages for any loss suffered, or to affirm the contract (treat it as continuing) and claim damages. The breach of a condition is often referred to as a repudiatory breach.
Key Term: Repudiatory Breach
A breach of contract that is sufficiently serious to entitle the innocent party to treat the contract as terminated. Typically, this involves breaching a condition or breaching an innominate term in a serious way.
Classic examples illustrating conditions often involve time stipulations described as being 'of the essence' or fundamental obligations like the requirement for an opera singer to perform on the opening night (Poussard v Spiers and Pond). Certain commercial time clauses, especially in mercantile contracts, have been treated as conditions because certainty is essential (Bunge v Tradax). Conversely, merely labelling a term a “condition” is not decisive; the courts will consider whether the parties truly intended every breach to allow termination (Schuler v Wickman).
Because termination is a powerful remedy, the innocent party must take care. Termination following a minor breach of an innominate term (or where s 15A SGA applies, downgrading a condition) may be wrongful and expose the terminating party to damages.
Key Term: Affirmation
The innocent party’s decision, with knowledge of the breach and of the right to terminate, to continue with the contract. Affirmation keeps the contract alive and forfeits the right to terminate for that breach.Key Term: Election
The choice the innocent party must make between terminating the contract or affirming it. Once made, the election is final for that breach.
Warranties
A warranty is a less important term of the contract, collateral or subsidiary to the main purpose of the agreement.
Key Term: Warranty
A minor or subsidiary term of the contract. Breach of a warranty only entitles the innocent party to claim damages; they cannot terminate the contract.
Breaching a warranty does not give the innocent party the right to terminate the contract. Their only remedy is to claim damages for the loss caused by the breach. The contract itself remains in force, and both parties must continue to perform their remaining obligations. An example is a singer missing rehearsals but being available for the main performances (Bettini v Gye).
Worked Example 1.1
FabricCo contracts with DressMaker Ltd to supply 100 metres of silk fabric by 1st March, stating that 'time is of the essence'. FabricCo delivers the fabric on 8th March. What options are available to DressMaker Ltd?
Answer:
The phrase 'time is of the essence' generally makes the delivery date a condition. FabricCo's late delivery is a breach of condition (a repudiatory breach). DressMaker Ltd can choose to terminate the contract (reject the fabric and claim damages for any loss, e.g., lost profits on dresses) or affirm the contract (accept the fabric but still claim damages for losses caused by the delay).
Revision Tip
Be cautious about labels. While parties might label a term a 'condition', the court may decide based on the contract overall that it is actually a warranty or innominate term if classifying it as a condition would lead to an unreasonable result. However, for SQE1 purposes, explicit wording like 'time is of the essence' usually indicates a condition.
Innominate Terms
Not all terms fit neatly into the categories of condition or warranty. An innominate term (or intermediate term) is one where the remedy for breach depends on the seriousness and consequences of that breach.
Key Term: Innominate Term
A term of the contract whose classification as a condition or warranty is not determined until the effects of its breach are considered.
The key case is Hong Kong Fir Shipping Co Ltd v Kawasaki Kisen Kaisha Ltd. This case established the test: does the breach deprive the innocent party of substantially the whole benefit which it was intended they should obtain from the contract?
- If YES (the breach is serious): The innocent party can terminate the contract and claim damages (treating it like a breach of condition).
- If NO (the breach is minor): The innocent party can only claim damages (treating it like a breach of warranty).
In practice, many quality and performance obligations are innominate; breach ranges from trivial to serious. For instance, a “seaworthiness” obligation can be breached in ways that do or do not justify termination, depending on effect and duration.
Worked Example 1.2
CharterCo hires a ship from ShipOwner Ltd for 24 months. A term requires the ship to be 'seaworthy'. The ship requires 5 weeks of repairs at the start and is unavailable for a further 15 weeks later due to engine trouble and incompetent crew. CharterCo wants to terminate the contract after the first 5 weeks. ShipOwner Ltd argues seaworthiness is only a warranty. Advise CharterCo.
Answer:
The term 'seaworthy' is likely an innominate term. Its breach could range from minor (e.g., a missing lifebuoy) to major (e.g., serious engine failure). Applying the Hong Kong Fir test: Does the initial 5-week delay, in the context of a 24-month charter, deprive CharterCo of substantially the whole benefit of the contract? Arguably not at that point. However, the cumulative effect of the 20 weeks unavailability likely does satisfy the test. CharterCo could likely terminate after the further 15 weeks, but potentially not after only the initial 5 weeks (at which point damages would be the remedy). The remedy depends on the effect of the breach.
Statutory Classification
Some statutes classify certain terms automatically. For example, the Sale of Goods Act 1979 implies terms regarding title, description, quality, and fitness for purpose into contracts for the sale of goods. Some of these are classified by the Act as conditions (e.g., s 12 - title) and others may be conditions or warranties depending on the context (e.g., ss 13, 14, 15).
- s 12 (right to sell) is a condition; breach always allows rejection and damages.
- ss 13–15 (description, satisfactory quality, fitness, and sample) are treated as conditions but subject to s 15A: where the breach is “so slight that it would be unreasonable” to reject, the breach is treated as a warranty. This curbs technical rejection where the defect is minor and the buyer could be fully compensated by damages.
- In consumer contracts, the Consumer Rights Act 2015 supplies statutory remedies (short-term right to reject, repair or replacement, price reduction). Consumer remedies focus on remedy structure rather than condition/warranty labels.
In service contracts, the SGSA 1982 s 13 implied term to exercise reasonable care and skill is treated by the courts as innominate—termination depends on the seriousness of the consequences.
Exam Warning
For SQE1, focus on the core distinctions and the Hong Kong Fir test. Remember that the consequence of breach determines the remedy for innominate terms. Don't assume a term is a condition or warranty without considering its importance, the contract's wording, and potentially the effect of the breach if it appears to be an innominate term. Also watch for s 15A in business sales of goods: a slight breach may prevent rejection even if the term is classified as a condition.
Practical guidance on labels, timing, and wrongful termination
- Labels: The parties’ designation of a term as a “condition” is relevant but not conclusive. In Schuler v Wickman, the House of Lords refused to treat a labelled “condition” as a condition where that would have meant any failure in 1,400 weekly visits justified termination—an outcome the parties could not reasonably have intended.
- Time obligations: In mercantile contexts, time obligations (ready to load, shipment windows) are frequently conditions (Bunge v Tradax). Outside mercantile lists, time clause status depends on the contract, any “time is of the essence” stipulation, and context.
- Minor breach: Rejecting goods or terminating a long-term contract for a minor breach risks wrongful termination, particularly where performance continues and damages can compensate (Cehave v Bremer; Ampurius v Telford).
Worked Example 1.3
Tooling Ltd appoints SalesCo to visit six named manufacturers weekly and labels the visit obligation a “condition”. SalesCo misses several visits over the first months. Tooling Ltd purports to terminate. SalesCo argues the label cannot be decisive. Who is likely to succeed?
Answer:
Labels are persuasive but not conclusive. In Schuler v Wickman, a similar “weekly visit” obligation labelled as a “condition” was not treated as a condition where it would make trivial breaches repudiatory. A court would ask whether the parties intended every missed visit to allow termination. If context shows the clause was not intended as an essential term with that effect, breach is likely of an innominate term, with termination only if the consequences deprive Tooling Ltd of substantially the whole benefit.
Worked Example 1.4
Buyer orders timber “of fair specification”. A small portion arrives with trivial non-conformities which would not affect use, and Buyer seeks to reject the entire consignment. The contract is a business sale of goods. Is rejection available?
Answer:
ss 13–15 SGA are generally “conditions”, but s 15A requires that if the breach is “so slight that it would be unreasonable” to reject, the breach is treated as a warranty. If the non-conformities are trivial and do not justify rejection, Buyer is confined to damages. Rejection is unlikely to be available where s 15A bites.
Worked Example 1.5
A grain sale requires the seller to have the cargo “ready to load” within a specified shipment period. The seller is late by several days. The buyer terminates. Is the buyer likely entitled to do so?
Answer:
In mercantile contracts, shipment window and “ready to load” obligations are often treated as conditions due to the need for certainty (Bunge v Tradax). A late tender within a defined shipment period will usually justify termination and damages.
Worked Example 1.6
Developer terminates a long-term development agreement after the contractor pauses work for nine months due to funding issues but resumes work shortly before termination. The developer alleges repudiatory breach. Is termination justified?
Answer:
Where a term is innominate, termination depends on effect. In Ampurius v Telford, a prolonged pause did not deprive the claimant of substantially the whole benefit in the context of a long (999-year) lease and resumed performance; damages sufficed. Here, termination is unlikely to be justified if the overall benefit remains available. Wrongful termination risk is high.
Key Point Checklist
This article has covered the following key knowledge points:
- Contract terms can be classified as conditions, warranties, or innominate terms.
- A condition is a fundamental term; breach allows termination and damages.
- A warranty is a minor term; breach allows damages only.
- An innominate term's classification depends on the severity of the breach's consequences.
- The test for innominate terms asks if the breach deprives the innocent party of substantially the whole benefit of the contract (Hong Kong Fir Shipping).
- Labels are persuasive but not decisive; courts consider context and consequences (Schuler v Wickman).
- Time obligations are often conditions in mercantile contracts; “time is of the essence” signals a condition; otherwise, status depends on context (Bunge v Tradax).
- Under SGA 1979, s 12 is a condition; ss 13–15 are conditions subject to s 15A, which can downgrade slight breaches to warranties.
- In consumer contracts, CRA 2015 supplies structured remedies (reject, repair, replace, price reduction) rather than relying on condition/warranty labels.
- Remedies following breach include termination or affirmation; the innocent party must elect and risks wrongful termination if the breach is not repudiatory.
Key Terms and Concepts
- Condition
- Repudiatory Breach
- Warranty
- Innominate Term
- Affirmation
- Election