## Learning Outcomes

This article explains the essential principles that govern the valid creation of express trusts for the SQE2, including:

- The three certainties required for a valid express trust and how the courts assess them
- Statutory and common law formalities for declarations of trust over land and personalty
- Formalities for dispositions of subsisting equitable interests and key distinctions in case law
- Constitution of trusts: vesting legal title, methods of transfer for different property types, and limited equitable exceptions
- Practical consequences where formalities or constitution fail, and rights of volunteers

## SQE2 Syllabus

For SQE2, you are required to understand the creation and requirements of express trusts, including the three certainties, formality requirements, and constitution, with a focus on the following syllabus points:

- The meaning and application of the three certainties: intention, subject matter, and objects
- Formality requirements for creating inter vivos trusts of land and personalty
- Formalities for declarations of trust in wills
- Formalities for the disposition of a subsisting equitable interest
- The rule on constitution: what is required to fully vest the trust property in the trustees
- Consequences of non-compliance, including unenforceable and void trusts
- Rights and limitations of volunteers, beneficiaries, and trustees where constitution or formalities fail

## Test Your Knowledge

_Attempt these questions before reading this article. If you find some difficult or cannot remember the answers, look more closely at that area during your revision._

1. Do all trusts require written evidence to be valid? Explain your answer.
2. Describe the three certainties required for the valid creation of an express trust.
3. When does a trust of land fail for lack of formality, and what is the legal effect?
4. What is the difference between a vested interest and a contingent interest in trust law?
5. Who is a “volunteer” and what are their rights if a trust is not properly constituted?

## Introduction

An express trust is formed when a person intentionally declares or creates an arrangement to hold property for the benefit of others or for a defined purpose. For a trust to be valid and enforceable, specific requirements must be satisfied. The SQE2 assessment demands not just knowledge of the technical requirements, but also an ability to apply these in client scenarios to provide clear legal advice. This article covers the core principles that underpin the creation of express trusts: the three certainties, mandatory formality rules, and the essential step of constitution.

### The Three Certainties

A valid express trust is not formed by accident. The law requires three certainties to be satisfied:

> **Key Term: Three certainties**
> In trust law, three requirements that must all be present: certainty of intention, certainty of subject matter, and certainty of objects (beneficiaries).

- **Certainty of Intention:** The settlor must make clear—by language, conduct, or both—a real intention to create a trust and not some other arrangement.
- **Certainty of Subject Matter:** The trust property (assets) must be clearly identified or identifiable, and each beneficiary’s entitlement must be ascertainable.
- **Certainty of Objects:** The beneficiaries (or, for purpose trusts, the purpose) must be sufficiently certain.

If any certainty is missing, the trust will fail.

> **Key Term: Settlor**
> The person who creates or declares a trust by transferring property or declaring a trust over it.

### Certainty of Intention

The courts look at the words and overall circumstances, not just formal labels. Words that merely express a wish, hope, or expectation (_precatory words_) are not usually enough. There must be a clear, imperative intention to impose a binding legal obligation to hold property on trust.

> **Key Term: Precatory words**
> Expressions of hope or non-binding suggestions, such as “wish,” “hope,” or “desire,” which typically do not create a trust.

An apparent declaration can also fail if the arrangement is a sham—i.e. where the documents or statements are used to give the appearance of a trust, but there was never a genuine intention to be bound.

> **Key Term: Sham trust**
> A purported trust arrangement intended to mislead third parties, lacking genuine intention that the trustee be bound; the court looks to the true intention, not labels.

The concept of sham explains why a court will disregard a “trust” label where all surrounding facts show no intention to create obligations (for example, a trust declared as a defensive device against creditors while retaining full personal control).

### Worked Example 1.1

A woman’s will states: “£10,000 to my brother, trusting that he will look after my nephews.” Is this a trust?

> **Answer:**
> No trust is created. The phrase “trusting that he will look after” is precatory, not imperative. The brother takes the money outright.

### Certainty of Subject Matter

It must be possible to identify with certainty the property forming the trust fund and the beneficial shares. If the property or share is described vaguely—e.g., “the bulk of my estate”—the trust fails for uncertainty.

If assets are tangible goods (e.g., wine collection), the items for the trust must be specifically set aside or segregated. For intangible assets (e.g., shares of one class in a company), identical assets do not generally need to be distinguished individually.

In addition to identifying the property, the beneficiary’s entitlement must be ascertainable. Expressions like “a generous amount” are insufficient, whereas an entitlement to a “reasonable income” is usually certain because the court can objectively assess reasonableness based on circumstances.

### Worked Example 1.2

A settlor states: “I declare a trust over part of my art collection for my niece.” No paintings are identified or set aside. Is there a valid trust?

> **Answer:**
> No. The trust fails for uncertainty of subject matter; “part of my art collection” is too vague without specifying or separating the items.

### Certainty of Objects

The beneficiaries must be clearly ascertainable:

- For a fixed trust: it must be possible to draw up a complete list of all beneficiaries.
- For a discretionary trust: it must be possible to say of any given person whether they are or are not a member of the class (“is or is not” test). Conceptual certainty of the description is required, but a complete list is unnecessary.

The class must not be so wide that the trust is administratively unworkable (for example, “inhabitants of West Yorkshire” has been held too wide to administer). If the class is defined vaguely (e.g., “my friends”), the trust is conceptually uncertain and void.

### Worked Example 1.3

A will leaves money on trust “for my relatives.” Is this class sufficiently certain?

> **Answer:**
> Yes. “Relatives” has a clear legal meaning. The trust will not fail for conceptual uncertainty.
> **Key Term: Fixed trust**
> A trust in which each beneficiary’s share or entitlement is predetermined and not subject to the trustees’ discretion.
> **Key Term: Discretionary trust**
> A trust in which trustees decide whether, how much, and which beneficiaries in a class should benefit.

### Formality Requirements

![Three certainties for a valid express trust: intention, subject matter, and objects, with key tests and consequences of uncertainty.](https://static.pastpaperhero.com/images/sqe2-core-principles-of-trust-law-creation-and-requirements-of-express-trusts_00.png)

_Certainty of intention, subject matter, and objects are set out with the applicable standards for fixed and discretionary trusts._

### Inter Vivos Trusts of Personalty

There is no general requirement for writing for trusts over personalty (movable property, such as cash, shares, or chattels) made during the settlor’s lifetime, unless legislation applies to a particular type of property. Intention can be manifested by words or conduct.

### Inter Vivos Trusts of Land

A declaration of trust in respect of land or any interest in land must be _manifested and proved by some writing_ signed by the person who can declare such a trust (Law of Property Act 1925, s 53(1)(b)). Without such writing, the trust cannot be enforced, though it is not void. In practice, where land is to be put on trust by transfer to new trustees, the transfer of legal title also requires a deed (LPA 1925, s 52(1)) and, for registered land, registration of the transfer to complete the transfer (Land Registration Act 2002, s 27).

> **Key Term: Realty**
> Land and buildings; immovable property.

### Trusts in Wills

Trusts created by will satisfy all formality requirements if the will is signed and witnessed correctly under the Wills Act 1837. Valid execution gives the necessary signed writing to evidence any trust of land declared in the will.

### Disposition of a Subisting Equitable Interest

A beneficiary transferring their equitable interest must do so _in writing_, signed by themselves or their agent (Law of Property Act 1925, s 53(1)(c)). Oral transfers of equitable interests are void.

> **Key Term: Equitable interest**
> The beneficial interest in property held on trust, as distinct from legal title.

How the disposition is effected matters:

- A direction to trustees that the beneficial interest be shifted to a third party is a disposition requiring signed writing (illustrated by the principle in Grey v IRC).
- If legal and equitable title move together so that the beneficial interest is extinguished by transfer of the legal estate to a non-trustee, writing under s 53(1)(c) is not required (principle seen in Vandervell v IRC).

### Worked Example 1.4

A is entitled to half the income of a trust fund. He writes and signs a letter to the trustees instructing them to pay it to B. Is this effective?

> **Answer:**
> Yes. The disposition of A’s equitable interest is valid as it is in signed writing. If only an oral instruction was given, it would be void.
>
> **Exam Warning:**
> If the legal and equitable title move together (e.g., a bare trust: trustee transfers full legal title to another), s 53(1)(c) does not apply. But where a beneficiary gives away only their equitable interest, s 53(1)(c) must be observed. A genuine sub-trust declared by a beneficiary who remains actively involved as trustee of their own equitable interest is not treated as a disposition that must comply with s 53(1)(c); however, if the beneficiary drops out and divests the interest entirely, writing will be required.

### Worked Example 1.5

A father executes a deed declaring that he holds his own shares on trust for his daughter. Has the trust been constituted?

> **Answer:**
> Yes. As settlor and trustee are the same and the legal title is already held by the trustee, the equitable interest separates and passes to the daughter.

### Worked Example 1.6

C is beneficial owner under a trust. C tells the trustees orally to “hold my share for D from now on.” No signed document is produced. Is D now entitled?

> **Answer:**
> No. C’s oral direction is a disposition of a subsisting equitable interest and is void without signed writing. A signed instrument that evidences the direction is required.

### Worked Example 1.7

E is sole beneficiary under a bare trust of quoted shares. The trustee transfers legal title to the shares directly to F (not as trustee), completing registration in F’s name. Is s 53(1)(c) engaged?

> **Answer:**
> No. Legal and equitable title moved together. E’s equitable interest was extinguished when legal title passed to F absolutely. Signed writing under s 53(1)(c) is not needed in such a case.

### Constitution: Vesting the Trust Property

Once the trust is declared, the legal title to the trust assets must actually be transferred to the trustee, in the correct manner for that type of property. This is constitution. Until then, the trust is incompletely constituted.

> **Key Term: Constitution**
> The process by which legal title to trust property is vested in the trustee.

Until the trust is fully constituted, the beneficiaries who have not provided consideration (“volunteers”) have no rights against the intended trustees or settlor.

> **Key Term: Volunteer**
> A person who has not given valuable consideration for a benefit (such as a gift); in trust law, most beneficiaries are volunteers.

Where the settlor declares herself trustee and already holds legal title, no further transfer of legal title is needed. Otherwise, proper methods must be used:

- Land: deed of transfer (LPA 1925, s 52(1)), and registration for registered estates (LRA 2002, s 27).
- Shares: company stock transfer form; registration by the company registrar.
- Chattels: deed of gift or physical delivery with intention to transfer.
- Bank balances or securities: steps appropriate to the instrument (e.g., assignment or transfer forms).

In very limited circumstances, equity will perfect an imperfect gift or incomplete constitution. The classic route is the rule in Re Rose (where the donor has done everything necessary in their power and only ministerial acts remain) and, exceptionally, unconscionability-based cases (such as Pennington v Waine) where it would be unconscionable to resile. These are fact-sensitive and rare. Additionally, Strong v Bird can perfect an imperfect gift where the donee becomes the donor’s personal representative and the donor’s continuing intention subsisted until death.

### Worked Example 1.5 (revisited)

A father executes a deed declaring that he holds his own shares on trust for his daughter. Has the trust been constituted?

> **Answer:**
> Yes. As settlor and trustee are the same and the legal title is already held by the trustee, the equitable interest separates and passes to the daughter.
If the trust is incompletely constituted (property not vested in the trustee), the beneficiaries cannot compel the settlor or trustee to complete the arrangement—unless consideration has been given (e.g., by contract or marriage settlement).

### Consequences of Non-Compliance

- Failure to satisfy any of the three certainties—the trust is void.
- Breach of writing/formality rules—unenforceable (for s 53(1)(b)) or void (for s 53(1)(c)).
- Incomplete constitution—volunteers cannot enforce; only those who have provided consideration (e.g., contract, marriage) might have rights.

In addition:

- A sham trust will be set aside; the court will not allow a form to defeat substance.
- For discretionary trusts, a conceptually certain class can still fail if administration would be unworkable in practice.
- Where a trust fails for uncertainty of beneficial shares but property and trustee are certain, a resulting trust to the settlor may arise.

> **Revision Tip:**
> Always check, step-by-step: the three certainties; the correct formality for the type of property and the transaction; and that legal title has been transferred as required.

## Key Point Checklist

_This article has covered the following key knowledge points:_

- The three certainties (intention, subject matter, objects) are always required for an express trust.
- Trusts of land must be evidenced in writing and signed by the settlor; trusts of personalty usually do not require writing.
- A disposition of an existing equitable interest must be made in writing, signed by the disponor.
- Constitution requires vesting of the trust property in the trustee by the correct transfer method for that property type.
- Until constitution is complete, volunteers cannot compel performance; only beneficiaries providing consideration may have rights.
- If a certainty or a required formality is missing, the trust fails or is unenforceable.
- Administrative unworkability can invalidate a discretionary trust even where conceptual certainty exists.
- A sham trust label will not be upheld; courts look to genuine intention and substance.

## Key Terms and Concepts

- Three certainties
- Settlor
- Precatory words
- Sham trust
- Fixed trust
- Discretionary trust
- Realty
- Equitable interest
- Constitution
- Volunteer


Core principles of trust law - Creation and requirements of express trusts