## Introduction

The automatism defence addresses situations where a person acts without voluntary control. Criminal liability usually requires both a prohibited act (actus reus) and a guilty mind (mens rea). If the act was not under the person’s control, the actus reus may be missing, and the law may excuse the conduct.

Courts set a high bar. Automatism means a total loss of voluntary control, not just confusion, tiredness, or reduced awareness. It also matters what caused the state. When an external factor triggers it, the defence can lead to a full acquittal (often called “sane automatism”). If the cause is internal, the proper route is usually the insanity rules and the special verdict. This guide sets out the core tests, leading cases, and practical ways to assess the issue in problem questions and real cases.

## What You'll Learn

- What automatism means and how it links to voluntariness and mens rea
- The requirement for a total loss of voluntary control (not partial)
- The difference between external causes (sane automatism) and internal causes (insanity)
- How key cases apply: Quick, Hennessy, AG’s Reference (No 2 of 1992), Burgess, Sullivan, Bailey, Hardie, Hill v Baxter, Broome v Perkins, R v T, and Bratty
- How self‑induced automatism interacts with specific and basic intent offences
- Who carries the evidential and legal burdens, and what courts expect by way of proof
- Practical steps for raising, testing, and deciding the defence

## Core Concepts

### Total Loss of Voluntary Control

- Automatism requires a complete destruction of voluntary control. In Attorney‑General’s Reference (No 2 of 1992), a lorry driver argued he was “driving without awareness”. The court held this was not enough because he retained some control and could respond to significant stimuli.
- Partial control defeats the defence. In Broome v Perkins, a diabetic driver avoided crashes and steered the car at points. These actions showed some control remained.
- The classic description comes from Bratty v Attorney‑General for Northern Ireland: automatism covers acts done by the muscles without any control of the mind, such as a spasm, reflex action, or convulsion. The focus is on whether the mind directed the movements at the relevant time.

Practical takeaways:

- Evidence of complete blackout or involuntary movement is key.
- Evidence that the defendant navigated obstacles, braked, steered, or responded to events tends to show some control and will usually defeat the defence.

### External vs Internal Causes

- External causes can support sane automatism and a full acquittal. Examples include a blow to the head, the unexpected effect of certain drugs, or conditions induced by external agents. R v Quick is classic: a diabetic’s hypoglycaemia caused by insulin (an external agent) and failure to eat was treated as potentially external. If accepted by the jury, automatism could apply.
- Internal causes point to insanity. In R v Hennessy, hyperglycaemia from the diabetes itself was internal, so the correct route was the insanity rules. R v Sullivan reached a similar position for epilepsy, and R v Burgess did so for sleepwalking, both treated as “disease of the mind” in law.
- Exceptional events: In R v T, post‑traumatic stress following a serious assault was treated as an external factor on the facts, and automatism was left to the jury. This is unusual and heavily fact‑specific.

Consequences:

- Sane automatism (external cause) → full acquittal.
- Insanity (internal cause) → special verdict of “not guilty by reason of insanity” and potential orders by the court.

### Self‑Induced Automatism and Offence Type

- If a defendant causes their state, the defence is restricted.
- Specific intent offences (e.g., theft, s.18 wounding): if the automatism prevents formation of the specific intent, acquittal may follow. But if the defendant was reckless in bringing about the state, they may still be liable for a lesser basic intent offence.
- Basic intent offences (e.g., assault occasioning ABH): self‑induced automatism generally fails where the defendant was reckless in creating the risk of losing control.
- R v Bailey: a diabetic who failed to eat after insulin may still face liability if they foresaw or should have foreseen the risk of aggressive or uncontrollable behaviour.
- R v Hardie: taking a sedative (Valium) not known to cause aggression can, on the facts, support automatism. The key is whether the drug was known or should have been known to cause the type of behaviour that occurred.

Key points:

- Alcohol or dangerous drugs that are known to cause disinhibition or aggression will usually defeat automatism.
- Non‑dangerous medication with unexpected effects may support the defence.

### Burden and Standard of Proof

- The defendant bears an evidential burden: they must point to sufficient evidence of automatism before the issue goes to the jury.
- Once properly raised, the prosecution must prove beyond reasonable doubt that the defendant acted voluntarily and with the required mental element. Bratty confirms the need for real evidence before automatism is left to the jury.
- The judge is the gatekeeper. If the evidence only supports an internal cause, the judge may direct that the only available route is insanity, not automatism.

## Key Examples or Case Studies

- Attorney‑General’s Reference (No 2 of 1992) [1994]
  - Lorry driver claimed “driving without awareness.” Held: automatism needs total loss of control. Partial awareness or the ability to react to major stimuli means the defence fails.

- Hill v Baxter [1958]
  - Court referred to situations like a swarm of bees or a sudden blow as examples of external causes that could justify automatism. On the facts, the defence failed due to lack of evidence of such a cause.

- Broome v Perkins [1987]
  - Diabetic driver veered and avoided obstacles. Because he retained some control, automatism failed.

- R v Quick [1973]
  - Hypoglycaemia caused by insulin (external factor) could ground automatism. If accepted, leads to acquittal rather than the insanity route.

- R v Hennessy [1989]
  - Hyperglycaemia from diabetes itself is internal; correct approach is insanity.

- R v Sullivan [1984]
  - Epilepsy treated as a disease of the mind in law; internal cause means insanity, not sane automatism.

- R v Burgess [1991]
  - Sleepwalking held to be internal. Automatism not available; insanity applied.

- R v T [1990]
  - PTSD from a serious sexual assault could, on exceptional facts, be an external cause. Automatism was left to the jury. Treated with care; fact‑sensitive.

- R v Bailey [1983]
  - Failure to eat after insulin. Self‑induced automatism is limited, especially for basic intent offences where recklessness may be found.

- R v Hardie [1985]
  - Taking Valium (sedative) with unexpected aggressive effects may support automatism if the drug was not known to carry such risks.

- Bratty v Attorney‑General for Northern Ireland [1963]
  - Set out what counts as automatism (spasm, reflex, convulsion) and confirmed the need for real evidence before leaving the issue to the jury.

## Practical Applications

- Map the elements
  - Confirm the actus reus and mens rea for the charged offence.
  - Ask whether the defendant’s movements were voluntary at the relevant time.

- Test for total loss of control
  - Look for blackouts, convulsions, or reflex actions.
  - Gather evidence of any steering, braking, compliance with signals, or avoidance of obstacles that may show partial control.

- Identify the cause
  - External cause? Examples: head injury, sudden blow, unexpected reaction to a non‑dangerous drug, insulin‑induced hypoglycaemia.
  - Internal cause? Examples: epilepsy, sleepwalking, hyperglycaemia from diabetes.
  - Consider R v T‑type events with care: only exceptional trauma will qualify.

- Consider self‑induction and offence type
  - Did the defendant knowingly create a risk of losing control (e.g., skipped meals after insulin, took intoxicants)?
  - For basic intent offences, recklessness in creating the state will usually defeat the defence.
  - For specific intent offences, absence of the required intent may still lead to acquittal, though a lesser alternative may remain.

- Evidence checklist
  - Medical records: diabetes logs, EEGs, sleep studies, prescription history.
  - Toxicology: drug type, dosage, whether the drug is known to cause aggression.
  - Witness accounts: description of behaviour before, during, and after the incident.
  - Scene data: vehicle telemetry, dashcam, CCTV, mobile phone usage.
  - Expert reports: endocrinology, neurology, psychiatry, and pharmacology as needed.

- Procedural points
  - Defence: raise automatism early; decide whether evidence supports sane automatism or points to insanity.
  - Prosecution: test consistency, challenge partial control, and explore foresight of risk for self‑induced cases.
  - Judge: rule on sufficiency of evidence; direct jury clearly on total loss of control and on external vs internal causes.

- Outcomes to keep in mind
  - Sane automatism accepted → full acquittal.
  - Insanity accepted → special verdict with possible hospital, supervision, or absolute discharge orders.
  - Self‑induced states → likely liability for basic intent offences; possible liability for lesser alternatives where specific intent is absent.

## Summary Checklist

- Total loss of voluntary control required; partial control defeats the defence
- Identify cause: external (sane automatism) vs internal (insanity)
- Quick (hypoglycaemia) vs Hennessy (hyperglycaemia): external vs internal
- Sullivan and Burgess: epilepsy and sleepwalking treated as internal
- AG’s Ref (No 2 of 1992) and Broome v Perkins: partial control is not enough
- Bailey and Hardie: self‑induced states; basic vs specific intent matters
- Defendant has an evidential burden; prosecution must disprove beyond reasonable doubt once raised
- Gather strong medical and factual evidence early

## Quick Reference

| Concept                         | Authority                       | Key takeaway                                                 |
| ------------------------------- | ------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------ |
| Total loss of control           | AG’s Ref (No 2 of 1992); Bratty | Partial control or “driving without awareness” is not enough |
| External cause (hypoglycaemia)  | R v Quick                       | Can support sane automatism and a full acquittal             |
| Internal cause (hyperglycaemia) | R v Hennessy                    | Points to insanity, not sane automatism                      |
| Sleepwalking/epilepsy           | R v Burgess; R v Sullivan       | Treated as internal; insanity route                          |
| Self‑induced automatism         | R v Bailey                      | Limited; recklessness defeats it for basic intent offences   |
| Sedative with unexpected effect | R v Hardie                      | Automatism may apply if no reason to foresee aggression      |


Automatism Defence in Criminal Law: Definition, Requirements and Key Cases