Evidence in Chief: Definition, Rules and Examples

Introduction

Evidence in chief is the first stage of a witness’s testimony. It is led by the party who calls the witness and focuses on what the witness saw, heard, or did. The aim is to place reliable, relevant facts before the court in a clear way.

In criminal cases, evidence in chief is usually given live, with the advocate asking open questions. In many civil cases, the witness statement stands as the witness’s evidence in chief, and the witness is only asked extra questions if something needs clarification or if the court directs otherwise.

This stage is governed by rules on relevance, competence, leading questions, hearsay, opinion evidence, and courtroom procedure. Getting it right sets a clear record for cross-examination and closing submissions.

What You'll Learn

• What evidence in chief is and what it covers
• How it differs in civil and criminal proceedings
• When leading questions are allowed and when they are not
• How hearsay is handled, with key statutory routes
• Witness competence, oaths or affirmations, and interpreters
• The role of expert evidence and how to present it
• Memory refreshing and previous statements
• How to deal with hostile witnesses
• Practical steps for planning and delivering evidence in chief

Core Concepts

What evidence in chief covers

• It is the first account from a witness called by a party.
• The focus is on direct, first-hand knowledge of facts in issue.
• Questions are open (“What happened next?”, “How far away were you?”) to encourage a natural account.
• The aim is to prove material facts. Background is fine where helpful, but avoid irrelevant detail.
• Exhibits (photos, documents, plans) can be introduced through the witness, subject to proof and fairness.

Civil vs criminal format

• Civil (CPR Part 32): A signed witness statement usually stands as evidence in chief. At trial the statement is taken as read unless the court orders otherwise. The witness is then cross-examined on it.
• Criminal: Most witnesses give their account live in court through open questions. For some vulnerable or intimidated witnesses, a recorded interview may be played as their evidence in chief, with cross-examination to follow. This can be allowed under special measures in the Youth Justice and Criminal Evidence Act 1999.

Leading questions and limited exceptions

• The calling party should avoid leading questions in evidence in chief (i.e., questions suggesting the answer).
• Limited exceptions include:
  • Name, address, and other straightforward introductory matters
  • Matters not in dispute
  • To move the witness on where there is no real risk of shaping their answer
  • With the court’s permission if the witness is declared hostile
• If a witness becomes difficult or evasive, the court may allow more pointed questioning, but this is the exception.

Hearsay at this stage

• Criminal proceedings (Criminal Justice Act 2003): Hearsay is generally excluded unless it meets a statutory route, such as:
  • Section 114(1)(a)–(d) (including the court’s “interests of justice” gateway)
  • Section 116 (witness unavailable for specified reasons)
  • Section 117 (business documents)
  • Section 120 (previous statements of witnesses who give oral evidence)
  • Section 118 (preserved common law rules)
• Civil proceedings (Civil Evidence Act 1995): Hearsay is generally admissible subject to notice and fairness. The court decides the weight to give it, considering reliability.
• Even where hearsay is allowed, first-hand evidence from a witness with direct knowledge usually carries greater weight.

Competence, oaths and interpreters

• Most people are competent to give evidence if they can understand questions and give answers that the court can understand.
• Witnesses must take an oath or make an affirmation before giving evidence. Children or those who do not understand the nature of an oath may still give unsworn evidence if they can understand questions and give comprehensible answers.
• Interpreters are used where needed to ensure the witness can understand and be understood. The interpreter takes an oath or affirmation and interprets faithfully.

Experts and opinion evidence

• Lay witnesses give facts, not opinions, except for everyday shorthand (e.g., “she looked upset”).
• Experts may give opinion within their field if the court is satisfied they have relevant specialist knowledge and the opinion will assist the court.
• Civil: CPR Part 35 governs expert evidence, including instructions and reports.
• Criminal: CrimPR Part 19 and associated Practice Directions set expectations on expert independence, methodology, and disclosure of material that might affect conclusions.

Memory refreshing and previous statements

• With the court’s permission, a witness may refresh memory from a document they made or verified when the events were fresh, usually their witness statement or notebook.
• In criminal cases, the Criminal Justice Act 2003 contains routes by which a previous statement can sometimes be treated as evidence of its contents (e.g., section 120) if conditions are met.
• Any refreshing must be fair: the other side should see the document and may cross-examine on it.

Hostile witnesses

• If a witness called by a party is unco-operative, gives a different account from their proof, or shows hostility, the court may allow the party to treat them as hostile.
• If permitted, the calling party may ask leading questions and, in some cases, challenge the witness with previous inconsistent statements.
• This is a matter of judicial discretion and should be requested promptly if problems arise.

Key Examples or Case Studies

• Street robbery eyewitness

  • The prosecutor calls an eyewitness who was five metres away under street lighting.
  • After oath/affirmation, the advocate uses open questions: “Where were you?”, “What did you see?”, “How long did it last?”
  • The witness identifies the accused as the person who grabbed the bag. The advocate avoids asking, “Was it the defendant who did it?” because that leads the answer.
  • CCTV stills are introduced through the witness, who explains how the images match what they saw.

• Boundary dispute with a surveyor

  • In a civil claim, the surveyor’s signed witness statement stands as their evidence in chief. It explains the method used, measurements taken, and references to title plans.
  • At trial, the statement is treated as read. The advocate asks a few clarifying open questions (e.g., “Can you clarify how you fixed point A?”) before cross-examination.
  • Any diagrams are exhibits, properly identified and explained in the statement.

• Company records in an unfair trading case

  • A former CFO is called to explain ledger entries and board minutes. The advocate establishes their role and knowledge of the records.
  • Business records are introduced. If a record maker is unavailable, a hearsay route (such as business documents under section 117 CJA 2003 in criminal proceedings, or the Civil Evidence Act 1995 in civil) may be used, with fairness safeguards.
  • Open questions allow the CFO to explain the flow of funds and who authorised key transfers.

• Vulnerable witness using a recorded interview

  • In a criminal case involving a child witness, the court allows a video-recorded Achieving Best Evidence interview to be played as the witness’s evidence in chief under special measures.
  • The advocate asks only limited supplementary open questions afterwards to clarify points, then the defence cross-examines.

Practical Applications

• Plan your structure
  • Prepare a short list of topics in logical order (scene setting, event, aftermath).
  • Use open prompts: who, what, where, when, how, and then follow up with “What happened next?”
• Check admissibility early
  • Identify any hearsay and decide if a statutory route is available (CJA 2003 in criminal; CEA 1995 in civil) or whether you need to call the maker.
  • Confirm any special measures for vulnerable witnesses are in place and ordered.
• Prepare the witness properly
  • Explain court process, oath/affirmation, and the need to answer in their own words.
  • Do not rehearse answers. You can review their statement or proof with them and remind them to say if they do not know or cannot recall.
• Handle documents and exhibits
  • Mark exhibits clearly and ensure copies are available to the judge and the other side.
  • If memory refreshing is likely, bring the document used and seek permission where required.
• Avoid leading questions
  • Use leading questions only for uncontroversial preliminaries or with permission in limited cases (e.g., hostile witness).
• Deal with hostile or reluctant witnesses promptly
  • If the witness’s account departs materially from their statement or they become unco-operative, apply to treat them as hostile and seek permission to put previous inconsistent statements.
• Respect interpreters and intermediaries
  • Book qualified interpreters in good time. Address the witness directly, pausing for interpretation.
  • Where an intermediary is used for a vulnerable witness, follow the ground rules order.
• Keep it relevant and concise
  • Focus on material facts. Avoid repetition and commentary.
  • If the court indicates a point is agreed or unnecessary, move on.

Summary Checklist

• Define what you need to prove through this witness
• Confirm competence and arrange oath/affirmation or special measures
• Decide civil vs criminal format and plan accordingly
• Prepare open questions in a clear sequence
• Identify and manage hearsay issues in advance
• Line up exhibits and any memory-refreshing documents
• Brief the witness on process and the importance of speaking in their own words
• Avoid leading questions except where permitted
• Be ready to apply to treat the witness as hostile if needed
• Keep the record tidy: mark exhibits, note any rulings, and stick to the issues

Quick Reference