## Introduction

A “for sale” sign outside a home looks simple, but it sits within clear rules from contract and property law. It signals marketing, not a binding offer, and it kicks off a process where statements, searches, and third-party rights all matter. Buyers, sellers, lenders, and agents should know what the sign does and does not do in law, how a binding contract is actually formed, and which rights can still affect the property after exchange.

This guide explains the legal position in plain terms, backed by leading cases and key statutes used every day in conveyancing and dispute resolution.

## What You’ll Learn

- Why a “for sale” sign is an invitation to treat, not an offer
- How a binding contract for land is formed under s.2 Law of Property (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1989
- The role of “subject to contract” and estate agent authority
- How pre-contract statements can become terms or misrepresentations
- The effect of easements and restrictive covenants (including Tulk v Moxhay)
- Priority rules in unregistered vs registered land, and overriding interests (Boland)
- What overreaching is and when it protects buyers and lenders
- Remedies on breach: specific performance vs damages (Hadley v Baxendale)
- Practical steps for buyers, sellers, and lenders to manage risk

## Core Concepts

### Advertisement vs Offer: What the Sign Actually Means

- A “for sale” sign is generally an invitation to treat, not an offer capable of immediate acceptance. This follows classic advertising cases such as Partridge v Crittenden and aligns with the idea that the seller can choose among offers and vary terms.
- A buyer’s expression of interest is an offer. No binding contract arises until the seller accepts that offer on agreed terms.
- In Harvey v Facey, a statement of lowest price was held to be an invitation, not an offer. Likewise, a sign or listing invites offers rather than creating immediate contractual rights.
- Estate agents usually have authority to market and to pass on offers. They do not normally have authority to conclude a binding contract for the seller unless expressly authorised.

### From Enquiry to Binding Contract

- “Subject to contract” is the standard position. Parties are not bound until formal contracts are exchanged.
- For land, a contract is only enforceable if it is in writing, incorporates all the agreed terms, and is signed by both parties: s.2 Law of Property (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1989.
- Exchange of contracts is the key milestone. Before exchange, either party can usually walk away without contractual liability (save for limited exceptions like an enforceable lock-out agreement).
- Completion transfers the legal estate by deed: s.52 Law of Property Act 1925. Title passes only on completion and registration (for registered land).

### Pre-Contract Statements, Terms and Misrepresentation

- Statements during viewings or in particulars can be:
  - Mere puffs (not actionable),
  - Representations (leading to misrepresentation if false), or
  - Contractual terms (breach gives contractual remedies).
- Misrepresentation can arise where a false statement induces the contract. Esso Petroleum v Mardon shows how negligent statements can attract liability. Statutory remedies are available under the Misrepresentation Act 1967.
- Whether a statement is a condition or warranty affects remedies. Baldry v Marshall highlights the difference: breach of condition may justify rescission; breach of warranty yields damages. Although a sale of land is not a sale of goods, the condition/warranty distinction helps frame the seriousness of a term.
- Disclaimers and “no responsibility” clauses must be fair and effective in law; any term excluding liability for misrepresentation must satisfy s.3 Misrepresentation Act 1967 (reasonableness test).

### Easements, Restrictive Covenants and Other Encumbrances

- A sale of land passes with it rights and burdens affecting the land.
- Easements (rights of way, rights of light) can burden or benefit the property and must be taken into account.
- Restrictive covenants can bind successors in title. In Tulk v Moxhay, the court enforced a restrictive covenant against a later owner who knew of it. Today, proper registration/notice is central to enforceability.
- Accurate disclosure in pre-contract enquiries (e.g., TA6 Property Information Form) is essential. Failure can lead to contractual and misrepresentation claims.

### Registered vs Unregistered Land; Priority and Overriding Interests

- Unregistered land:
  - Priority of many equitable rights depends on registration under the Land Charges Act 1972. A purchaser must search the appropriate registers. Failure can leave the buyer bound by prior rights.
- Registered land (Land Registration Act 2002):
  - The register shows title, charges, and restrictions. Many rights must be protected by notice or restriction to bind a buyer.
  - Some rights bind despite not being on the register—these are overriding interests. Actual occupation is a classic example (Williams & Glyn’s Bank v Boland): an occupier’s equitable interest may bind a purchaser or lender.
  - Overreaching can remove equitable interests from the land if the purchase money is paid to at least two trustees (LPA 1925 ss 2 and 27). The beneficiaries’ rights transfer to the proceeds of sale, protecting a buyer who pays correctly.

### Remedies if a Deal Collapses

- Specific performance is more common in land contracts because each property is unique. Where damages are inadequate, the court may order the sale to complete.
- Damages for breach follow the remoteness test in Hadley v Baxendale: recover losses that arise naturally or were in the parties’ contemplation when contracting.
- Deposits: a standard 10% deposit may be forfeited on buyer default, depending on contract terms and equitable considerations.
- Lock-out (exclusivity) agreements can be enforceable if they are time-limited, supported by consideration, and sufficiently certain (see Pitt v PHH Asset Management). They can reduce gazumping risk before exchange.

## Key Examples or Case Studies

### Partridge v Crittenden [1968] 1 WLR 1204

- Context: Newspaper advert for birds.
- Point: Advertisements are invitations to treat.
- Application: A “for sale” sign is not a binding offer.

### Harvey v Facey [1893] AC 552

- Context: Telegram stating lowest price.
- Point: A statement of minimum price is not an offer.
- Application: Price indications do not create a contract.

### Esso Petroleum v Mardon [1976] QB 801

- Context: Forecasts/assurances by a party with special knowledge.
- Point: Negligent statements can create liability in misrepresentation.
- Application: Careless sales talk by sellers or agents can be actionable.

### Tulk v Moxhay (1848) 2 Ph 774

- Context: Enforcement of restrictive covenants.
- Point: Certain covenants can bind later purchasers who take with notice.
- Application: Buyers must check for covenants that limit use.

### Williams & Glyn’s Bank v Boland [1981] AC 487

- Context: Spouse in actual occupation with an equitable interest.
- Point: Actual occupation can create an overriding interest binding a purchaser/lender.
- Application: Always investigate occupiers and obtain consents.

### Pitt v PHH Asset Management [1994] 1 WLR 327

- Context: Lock-out agreement in a sale negotiation.
- Point: Exclusivity agreements can be enforceable if properly structured.
- Application: Use a short, clear lock-out to reduce pre-exchange risks.

### Hadley v Baxendale (1854) 9 Ex 341

- Context: Remoteness of damage.
- Point: Losses must be within reasonable contemplation.
- Application: Limits what can be recovered if a property sale is breached.

## Practical Applications

- For sellers
  - Use “subject to contract” until exchange to avoid premature commitment.
  - Brief your estate agent on what they can and cannot say. Provide accurate, up-to-date information for marketing and replies to enquiries.
  - Gather documents early: title information, guarantees, planning/building control, details of easements/covenants, and any consents.
  - If property is co-owned under a trust, arrange for overreaching by ensuring purchase funds will be paid to at least two trustees.
  - Consider a lock-out agreement if you want to secure a potential buyer pre-exchange.

- For buyers
  - Treat the sign as an invitation to enquire, not a promise to sell.
  - Ensure the contract complies with s.2 LP(MP)A 1989 and is clearly “subject to contract” until ready to exchange.
  - Conduct thorough due diligence: title documents, Land Registry entries, local searches, enquiries, and a survey.
  - Ask directly about occupiers and obtain signed consents/releases where needed (to manage overriding interests).
  - Check for and understand easements, restrictive covenants, and any registered charges or restrictions.
  - Consider an exclusivity agreement if timing and competition are concerns.

- For lenders
  - Investigate actual occupiers and require appropriate consents to avoid security being affected by overriding interests.
  - Confirm that completion monies will be paid to two trustees if there is a trust, to benefit from overreaching.
  - Ensure your charge is properly registered.

- For estate agents
  - Be accurate and avoid statements that could be misleading. False or careless statements can amount to misrepresentation.
  - Make sure you have clear written instructions and do not accept or communicate acceptance on behalf of the seller unless expressly authorised to do so.
  - Use “subject to contract” on correspondence and offers until exchange.

- Practical note on the sign itself
  - Local rules govern the size and placement of estate agent boards. Check the relevant advertisement regulations and any leasehold restrictions before erecting signage.

## Summary Checklist

- A “for sale” sign is an invitation to treat; it is not an offer.
- A binding contract for land requires writing, all terms, and signatures: s.2 LP(MP)A 1989.
- Use “subject to contract” and exchange formally before assuming commitment.
- Pre-contract statements must be accurate; misstatements can lead to misrepresentation claims.
- Identify and disclose easements, restrictive covenants, and other encumbrances.
- In unregistered land, search Land Charges; in registered land, check the register and consider overriding interests.
- Investigate occupiers to manage the risk of interests arising from actual occupation.
- Use overreaching by paying purchase money to two trustees where appropriate.
- On breach, consider specific performance for unique property; damages are limited by Hadley v Baxendale.
- Consider lock-out agreements to reduce pre-exchange uncertainty.

## Quick Reference

| Concept                      | Authority                                               | Key Takeaway                                                                  |
| ---------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------- | ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
| Invitation to treat          | Partridge v Crittenden [1968]                           | A “for sale” sign invites offers; it is not an offer itself.                  |
| Contract for sale of land    | s.2 Law of Property (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1989 | Must be in writing, include all terms, and be signed by both parties.         |
| Transfer by deed             | s.52 Law of Property Act 1925                           | Legal title passes on completion by deed (and registration).                  |
| Restrictive covenants        | Tulk v Moxhay (1848)                                    | Certain covenants bind successors where properly protected.                   |
| Overriding interests         | Land Registration Act 2002; Boland [1981]               | Actual occupation can bind buyers/lenders even if unregistered.               |
| Unregistered land priority   | Land Charges Act 1972                                   | Failure to search can leave a buyer bound by prior rights.                    |
| Overreaching                 | LPA 1925 ss 2 & 27                                      | Paying capital money to two trustees shifts equitable rights to the proceeds. |
| Remedies: damages/remoteness | Hadley v Baxendale (1854)                               | Recover losses within reasonable contemplation at contract.                   |

Legal Implications of a 'For Sale' Sign