## Introduction

Executive power—authority to enforce laws and direct public administration—is limited by constitutional rules. Written texts, statutory frameworks and institutional checks all restrict what the executive can do, helping to prevent unilateral or arbitrary action. A system of separated branches divides law‑making, execution and interpretation, with each branch able to act as a check on the others. This guide explains the main limits on executive authority, the role of courts and legislatures, how emergency powers are controlled, and how international obligations can shape lawful action.

## What You'll Learn

- What executive power includes and where it comes from
- How separation of powers and checks restrain the executive
- The role of judicial review in controlling executive acts
- Limits on emergency powers and how they are supervised
- How independent bodies and legislative oversight operate
- The effect of international obligations on executive action
- Key lessons from landmark cases: Marbury v Madison, Youngstown, and United States v Nixon
- Practical steps for assessing whether an executive action is lawful

## Core Concepts

### Enumerated Powers and Legal Limits

- Constitutions typically set out what the executive may do (for example, enforce laws, conduct foreign affairs, command the armed forces, make appointments).
- Actions need a lawful basis in the constitutional text, statute or recognised prerogative/constitutional practice (depending on the system).
- Even where powers are broadly described, they are framed by:
  - Procedure (e.g., requirements for advice and consent, or formal instruments)
  - Subject‑matter limits (e.g., no power to create new crimes without legislation)
  - Rights protections (e.g., due process and human rights duties)

Key point: if a proposed act cannot be tied to a recognised legal source of authority, it risks being unlawful.

### Separation of Powers and Mutual Checks

- Legislature: makes law and sets the budget; can set conditions on, or withhold, funding.
- Executive: implements law and runs the administration; must act within statutory and constitutional limits.
- Judiciary: interprets law and decides disputes; can review executive action and provide remedies.

Common checks on the executive include:

- Legislative scrutiny: hearings, inquiries, and committee reports
- Appointments and removals: confirmation processes; impeachment or similar removal mechanisms
- Budgetary control: appropriations and conditions on spending
- Judicial review: courts can suspend or set aside unlawful action

### Judicial Review and the Rule of Law

- Courts assess whether executive actions have a legal basis and comply with rights and procedure.
- Review can consider:
  - Authority: Is there an express or implied legal power?
  - Limits: Has the executive acted for a proper purpose and within scope?
  - Process: Were required procedures followed (consultation, reasons, fair hearing)?
  - Rights: Is the action compatible with constitutional rights and human rights obligations?

Outcomes may include quashing an act, granting an injunction, or awarding damages where the law allows.

### Emergency Powers: Scope, Process and Time Limits

- Constitutions often permit special measures in emergencies, but with built‑in limits.
- Typical controls:
  - Statutory or constitutional trigger conditions
  - Time limits and sunset clauses
  - Reporting and renewal requirements
  - Proportionality and necessity tests
  - Safeguards for core rights (some rights may be non‑derogable)

Crisis conditions do not create new powers by themselves; there must be a lawful basis, and courts can test whether the action stays within it.

### Independent Bodies and Legislative Oversight

- Independent agencies, auditors and ombudsmen provide scrutiny beyond day‑to‑day political control.
- They can investigate executive performance, ensure regulatory compliance, and report publicly.
- Legislatures oversee executive action through:
  - Questioning ministers/officials and demanding documents
  - Amending or repealing enabling statutes
  - Conditioning or reducing budgets for programmes that exceed legal authority
  - Requiring impact assessments and post‑implementation reviews

These mechanisms encourage transparency and increase the cost of acting outside the law.

### International Obligations and Domestic Law

- Treaties, customary international law and human rights duties can affect what the executive may lawfully do, especially where domestic law incorporates those obligations.
- Where incorporation is required, legislatures may need to pass enabling legislation before treaties limit domestic action.
- Executives acting abroad or on cross‑border matters should check:
  - Treaty commitments and reservations
  - Human rights protections that apply extraterritorially in some contexts
  - Sanctions regimes and trade controls set by international bodies or domestic statutes

## Key Examples or Case Studies

### Marbury v Madison (1803)

- Context: A dispute over judicial commissions set the stage for defining the court’s role.
- Holding: The court confirmed it can review acts for compatibility with the constitution and refuse to enforce measures that exceed legal authority.
- Lesson: Judicial review is a core control on the executive and the legislature.

### Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v Sawyer (1952)

- Context: During the Korean War, the President ordered the seizure of steel mills to avert a strike.
- Holding: The Supreme Court ruled the President lacked authority to take the mills without statutory support.
- Lesson: Emergency conditions do not replace the need for a legal basis; the strongest position is action backed by legislation.

### United States v Nixon (1974)

- Context: The President claimed an absolute privilege to withhold tapes sought in a criminal investigation.
- Holding: The court required disclosure, recognising only a qualified privilege that must give way to the fair administration of justice.
- Lesson: Claims of confidentiality are limited; courts can compel cooperation where justice so requires.

## Practical Applications

- Map the power to a legal source
  - Identify the constitutional or statutory provision, or recognised prerogative/constitutional practice, that authorises the action.
  - If relying on implied power, explain how it is necessary to carry out an expressly granted power.

- Check purpose, scope and process
  - Confirm the action serves a proper, legally recognised purpose.
  - Verify statutory conditions, procedures and formalities (e.g., consultation, reasons, publication).
  - Ensure decision‑makers have the correct delegation.

- Assess rights and proportionality
  - Screen for rights impacts (e.g., liberty, privacy, property, speech).
  - Where rights are limited, record the necessity and proportionality analysis and consider less restrictive alternatives.

- Validate emergency use
  - Confirm that trigger conditions are met and documented.
  - Observe time limits, renewal votes and reporting duties.
  - Build in review points and a clear exit plan.

- Prepare for oversight
  - Maintain records to support parliamentary/committee review and audit.
  - Anticipate disclosure duties; manage confidentiality claims carefully and lawfully.
  - Track appropriations and spending conditions; do not commence programmes without budget authority.

- Interface with international law
  - Check whether treaties or human rights instruments are incorporated and applicable.
  - Align cross‑border measures with sanctions, trade rules and diplomatic commitments.

- Litigation readiness
  - Consider the risk of judicial review and available remedies.
  - Use legal opinions and risk registers to document reasoning.
  - If challenged, cooperate with the court and provide a full, accurate record.

## Summary Checklist

- Identify the clear legal basis for the action (text, statute or recognised practice)
- Confirm proper purpose, scope and authorised decision‑maker
- Follow required procedures and keep records of reasons and evidence
- Test compatibility with constitutional and human rights protections
- For emergencies, meet trigger conditions and honour time limits and reporting
- Prepare for legislative and independent oversight; manage budgets within authorisation
- Consider international obligations where relevant
- Anticipate judicial review; ensure decisions can be defended in court

## Quick Reference

| Concept               | Authority                     | Key takeaway                                                     |
| --------------------- | ----------------------------- | ---------------------------------------------------------------- |
| Separation of powers  | Constitutional text/structure | Distinct branches limit each other through defined checks        |
| Judicial review       | Marbury v Madison (1803)      | Courts can set aside unlawful executive acts                     |
| Emergency powers      | Youngstown (1952)             | Crisis alone is not enough; a lawful basis is still required     |
| Executive privilege   | United States v Nixon (1974)  | Confidentiality is qualified and yields to due process           |
| Legislative oversight | Statutes and appropriations   | Lawmakers can condition, review or withhold funds for programmes |

Executive Power: Constitutional Boundaries