## Facts

- Virginia Military Institute (VMI) was a state-supported military college operated with the stated mission of producing “citizen-soldiers” prepared for leadership in civilian life and the military.
- VMI used an “adversative” method of instruction aimed at challenging cadets’ prior beliefs and instilling the values VMI sought to impart.
- The adversative system relied on physical rigor, psychological stress, uniform treatment, and a near total lack of personal privacy.
- A core part of the program was residential life in the barracks, where cadets had essentially no privacy, including while using bathrooms or showering.
- The program was described as comparable in intensity to Marine Corps boot camp.
- Consistent with VMI’s equal-treatment approach within the corps, VMI imposed physical and other requirements that every cadet had to satisfy to graduate, without exception.
- VMI maintained a categorical male-only admissions policy, excluding women regardless of their qualifications.
- The Commonwealth of Virginia supported VMI as a public institution.
- The United States sued the Commonwealth of Virginia and related defendants, alleging that excluding qualified women from VMI violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
- At a six-day bench trial, Virginia defended the male-only policy as serving its asserted objective of diversity in public higher education through single-sex educational options and as necessary to preserve VMI’s distinctive adversative program.
- Evidence at trial included comparative physical-performance data (including data from the U.S. Military Academy) suggesting that, under the same physical standards, a substantially higher proportion of women would fail key requirements.
- Virginia argued that admitting women would require major changes to barracks life, privacy arrangements, and physical standards, materially changing VMI’s program.

## Issues

1. Whether Virginia’s support of VMI’s male-only admissions policy denied women equal protection under the Fourteenth Amendment.
2. Whether, under intermediate scrutiny, Virginia showed an important governmental objective and that excluding women from VMI was substantially related to achieving that objective.

## Decision

- The district court entered judgment for the defendants and upheld VMI’s male-only admissions policy.
- The court treated Virginia’s stated objective—diversity in higher education through maintaining single-sex educational options—as an important governmental objective.
- The court found the sex-based exclusion substantially related to maintaining VMI’s distinctive adversative system, including its intense physical demands and the barracks-based environment with minimal privacy.
- The court credited evidence that coeducation would require significant changes to facilities and daily life (especially privacy-related changes) that would alter essential features of the VMI experience.
- The court also credited evidence that VMI’s uniform physical requirements would likely yield substantially different outcomes for female cadets and that VMI would face pressure either to create sex-differentiated standards or reduce standards—either of which, in the court’s view, would change a key part of the program.
- In distinguishing Supreme Court precedent striking down a female-only nursing program, the court emphasized that VMI’s teaching method and living conditions were tightly linked to the single-sex setting and would be significantly affected by admitting women.

## Legal Principles

- Sex-based classifications by state actors are reviewed under intermediate scrutiny: the government must show an important governmental objective and a substantial relationship between the classification and that objective.
- A state cannot justify a sex classification by relying on overbroad generalizations; the justification must rest on evidence tied to the program at issue.
- In evaluating whether the means are substantially related to the asserted objective, a court may consider whether admitting the excluded sex would require material changes to the institution’s defining educational method and conditions of participation.
- A court may consider empirical evidence about the operation of uniform physical requirements when assessing whether a sex classification is substantially related to preserving a program defined in part by those requirements.

## Conclusion

The district court held that Virginia could maintain VMI as a male-only public institution without violating equal protection because the Commonwealth’s goal of offering single-sex options within its higher-education system was important and, based on the trial record, limiting VMI to men was substantially related to preserving VMI’s adversative method, barracks life with minimal privacy, and uniform physical demands.


United States v. Commonwealth of Virginia, 766 F. Supp. 1407 (1991)