## Facts

- The Virginia Military Institute (VMI) was a state-supported military college operated as part of Virginia’s public higher-education structure.
- VMI’s mission was to produce “citizen-soldiers” through a distinctive educational model that included rigorous physical training, minimal privacy, residence in barracks, and an adversarial teaching method.
- VMI maintained a male-only admissions policy that excluded women regardless of individual qualifications.
- The United States sued Virginia and related state and VMI defendants, alleging that excluding women from a public institution on the basis of sex violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
- Virginia defended the policy by asserting an important governmental objective: educational diversity in public higher education, including the availability of a single-sex educational option as an alternative to coeducation.
- At trial, the district court received empirical studies and research addressing asserted educational benefits of single-sex education for men and women, compared with coeducational settings.
- The district court also considered evidence that admitting women would require significant changes to VMI’s program, including changes tied to physical training and standards; for example, VMI required a physical test for graduation that (as designed) would prevent many women from graduating unless the requirement were changed.
- The district court concluded that Virginia had shown the male-only policy served a legitimate educational objective and that excluding women was the only way to maintain VMI as a single-sex institution within the state’s array of public educational options.
- The United States appealed, arguing that offering a single-sex public opportunity only to men was not a legitimate objective and that Virginia had not provided sufficient justification for excluding women from VMI.

## Issues

1. Whether Virginia’s support of VMI as a public, male-only college denied women equal protection of the laws.
2. Whether Virginia’s asserted interest in educational diversity—specifically, providing a single-sex public college option—qualified as an important governmental objective for a sex-based classification.
3. Whether excluding women from VMI was substantially related to that objective, given the district court’s findings that coeducation would materially change core features of VMI’s program.
4. Whether equal protection required Virginia to provide an equivalent single-sex military college opportunity for women as a condition of maintaining VMI as an all-male institution.

## Decision

- The Fourth Circuit affirmed the district court’s judgment upholding VMI’s male-only admissions policy.
- The court applied intermediate scrutiny to the sex-based classification and accepted Virginia’s asserted objective of educational diversity, including the option of single-sex education in a public higher-education setting, as an important governmental objective.
- The court accepted the district court’s factual findings that VMI’s distinctive educational method would be significantly altered if women were admitted, including in areas such as physical training standards and living arrangements.
- Based on those findings, the court concluded that maintaining VMI as single-sex was substantially related to Virginia’s objective of providing that type of educational option within its public system.
- The court rejected the United States’ position that Virginia was constitutionally required (on this record and under then-existing precedent) to create a parallel, equivalent institution for women as a prerequisite to maintaining VMI’s all-male status.

## Legal Principles

- Sex-based classifications by a state are reviewed under intermediate scrutiny: the state must show an important governmental objective and a substantial relationship between the classification and that objective.
- Courts examine whether the stated objective is genuine and whether the sex-based means are closely connected to accomplishing it, rather than resting on broad generalizations about the capacities or proper roles of men or women.
- In reviewing an equal protection challenge, an appellate court generally accepts a district court’s trial-level factual findings unless they are clearly erroneous, including findings about how a challenged policy relates to the design and operation of an educational program.
- A state may defend a single-sex admissions policy by pointing to an asserted objective of offering a single-sex educational option within a broader set of public higher-education choices, if the record supports the fit between that objective and the exclusionary policy.

## Conclusion

The Fourth Circuit held that Virginia’s interest in providing educational diversity through a single-sex public college option was an important governmental objective and, accepting the district court’s findings that admitting women would require substantial changes to VMI’s distinctive program, concluded that VMI’s male-only admissions policy satisfied intermediate scrutiny and did not violate the Equal Protection Clause.


United States v. Commonwealth of Virginia, 976 F.2d 890 (1992)