## Facts

- Mississippi historically operated a *de jure* dual public university system with racially identifiable white and Black institutions.
- Private plaintiffs sued in 1975; the United States later intervened, alleging Mississippi failed to dismantle the dual system in violation of the Fourteenth Amendment and Title VI.
- Mississippi adopted facially race-neutral policies and, in 1981, issued institutional “mission statements” classifying schools (e.g., “comprehensive,” “urban,” “regional”), affecting program scope and prestige.
- By the mid-1980s, enrollment patterns remained sharply divided by race, with historically white institutions predominantly white and historically Black institutions largely Black.
- Challenged features included differential admissions standards (including ACT thresholds), mission designations, program duplication between proximate institutions, and alleged funding/facilities disparities.

## Issues

1. Whether a state with a prior *de jure* segregated higher-education system satisfies the Equal Protection Clause (and Title VI) merely by adopting facially race-neutral policies.
2. What standard governs whether remaining policies and practices must be changed as vestiges of the prior dual system.
3. Whether specific policies (admissions criteria, mission assignments, program duplication, and related funding/facilities decisions) must be eliminated or justified because they are traceable to the dual system and continue to have segregative effects.

## Decision

- The Supreme Court reversed the judgment that Mississippi had satisfied its obligations and held, 8–1, that Mississippi had not met its affirmative duty to dismantle its prior *de jure* system.
- The Court held that Mississippi’s system was not unconstitutional per se based only on racial imbalance, but the State had to account for policies traceable to the former dual system that continued to foster segregation.
- The Court placed the burden on Mississippi to show for each challenged policy that it was not traceable, had no continuing segregative effects, or was justified by sound educational reasons and could not practicably be eliminated.
- The Court remanded for further proceedings to evaluate the identified policies under the articulated standard rather than ordering a specific remedy.

## Legal Principles

- A state’s duty to dismantle a prior *de jure* dual higher-education system is not discharged by facially race-neutral admissions and governance measures alone.
- If a state perpetuates policies and practices traceable to its prior dual system that continue to have segregative effects, the state violates its duty unless the policies have sound educational justification and cannot practicably be eliminated.
- Racial identifiability of institutions is relevant evidence of remaining vestiges, but the Constitution does not require racial balancing, quotas, or proportional representation.
- Courts must assess challenged policies individually (e.g., admissions standards, institutional missions, and unnecessary program duplication) for traceability, segregative effects, and justification/practicability.

## Conclusion

Mississippi remained obligated to take further affirmative steps to dismantle vestiges of its formerly segregated public university system by eliminating or justifying policies traceable to the dual regime that continued to produce segregative effects, and the case was remanded to apply that standard to the challenged features of the system.


United States v. Fordice, 505 U.S. 717 (1992)