## Introduction

Prejudicial evidence is any proof that risks pushing a judge or jury to decide a case on an improper basis, such as emotion, bias, or confusion, rather than on relevant facts. In U.S. courts, even relevant evidence can be excluded if its value is substantially outweighed by unfair prejudice or related dangers.

The key rule is Federal Rule of Evidence 403. It allows a judge to exclude relevant evidence if its probative value is substantially outweighed by a danger of unfair prejudice, confusing the issues, misleading the jury, undue delay, wasting time, or needlessly presenting the same proof more than once. This guide explains how that balancing works, common problem areas, and practical steps for both civil and criminal cases.

## What You'll Learn

- What “unfair prejudice” means under FRE 403
- How relevance (FRE 401) and probative value relate to the 403 balancing test
- When courts exclude prior crimes, character evidence, and graphic photos
- How to use motions in limine, stipulations, redactions, and limiting instructions
- Case examples, including Old Chief v. United States (1997), and everyday scenarios
- How to preserve a clean record for appeal on evidentiary rulings

## Core Concepts

### Relevance and Probative Value (FRE 401–402)

- Relevance (FRE 401): Evidence is relevant if it makes a fact of consequence more or less likely than it would be without the evidence.
- Admissibility of relevant evidence (FRE 402): Relevant evidence is generally admissible unless a rule, statute, or constitutional provision says otherwise.
- Probative value: Think of this as the strength or persuasive weight of a piece of evidence on a material issue. It can vary based on:
  - How directly the evidence relates to a disputed fact
  - The reliability of the proof (e.g., authenticated records vs. speculation)
  - The availability of alternative evidence with less risk of prejudice
  - Whether the issue can be proven in a narrower or cleaner way

### Unfair Prejudice and the 403 Balancing Test

- Unfair prejudice: The risk that the jury or judge will give the evidence weight for the wrong reason—such as a tendency to inflame emotions, invite a decision based on character or past acts, or cause confusion.
- The balancing test (FRE 403): A judge may exclude evidence if its probative value is substantially outweighed by one or more dangers, including:
  - Unfair prejudice
  - Confusing the issues or misleading the jury
  - Undue delay, wasting time, or needless duplication
- Practical factors judges often consider:
  - Centrality of the fact to be proven
  - Availability of less prejudicial alternatives (e.g., stipulations, summaries)
  - The risk of jurors drawing forbidden inferences (e.g., propensity)
  - Whether the evidence can be sanitized or limited by instruction
- Discretion on appeal: 403 rulings are reviewed for abuse of discretion. A clear, targeted objection and offer of proof help preserve issues for review (see FRE 103).

### Special Traps: Prior Crimes, Character, and Graphic Material

- Prior crimes and character (FRE 404(b), 609):
  - Prior bad acts cannot be used simply to show a person acted in line with a bad character or propensity.
  - They may be admitted for other purposes (e.g., motive, opportunity, intent), but 403 still applies.
  - Prior convictions used for impeachment (FRE 609) also face 403 balancing, especially if they are similar to the charged offense or highly inflammatory.
- Graphic photos, videos, and recordings:
  - Even relevant visuals may be excluded if they mainly stir emotion and add little new information.
  - Courts often limit the number, crop or redact images, or require less disturbing alternatives.
- Wealth, insurance, or settlement evidence:
  - Some categories have their own rules (e.g., FRE 407–411), but 403 still applies to keep out unfairly prejudicial uses that distract from the real issues.

## Key Examples or Case Studies

- Real-world example: Prior criminal record in a criminal trial
  - Scenario: The prosecution wants to show the defendant’s prior convictions.
  - Problem: The jury might convict based on past acts rather than the charged conduct.
  - Likely result: Exclusion under 403 or restriction to a limited purpose with a careful instruction. If impeachment is permitted, details may be trimmed to reduce prejudice, especially if the prior crime is similar.

- Old Chief v. United States, 519 U.S. 172 (1997)
  - Context: The defendant, charged with being a felon in possession of a firearm, offered to stipulate that he had a prior felony conviction. The government wanted to present the name and nature of the prior offense.
  - Ruling: The Supreme Court held that Rule 403 required acceptance of the stipulation because naming the prior crime created a serious risk of unfair prejudice with limited added value.
  - Takeaway: When a clean alternative exists to prove the same point, courts may exclude more inflammatory details.

- State v. Doe (graphic crime-scene photos)
  - Context: The prosecution offered graphic photos to show the scene and injuries. The defense argued the images would inflame the jury and add little beyond testimony and less disturbing images.
  - Likely ruling: If the photos are cumulative or unusually graphic relative to their probative value, a court can exclude them under 403 or limit the set to less disturbing images. Many courts trim the number and require cropping or redaction.

- Johnson v. ABC Corp. (civil product case, illustrative)
  - Context: Johnson sues for injuries allegedly caused by a defective product. The defense offers past medical incidents unrelated to the product to suggest other causes.
  - Ruling pattern: Courts may exclude such evidence if it invites speculation or shifts focus to unrelated health issues, and if the connection to the alleged defect is weak.
  - Takeaway: In civil cases, judges often confine causation proof to competent, directly relevant medical or expert testimony, blocking side paths that confuse or prejudice.

## Practical Applications

- Plan your 403 strategy early
  - Identify high-risk items: prior crimes, character evidence, graphic images, inflammatory social media posts, and large volumes of marginally relevant documents.
  - File motions in limine to exclude or narrow items before trial.
  - Offer cleaner alternatives: stipulations, summaries (FRE 1006), redactions, or neutral language.

- Build or attack probative value
  - To support admission:
    - Tie the evidence to a material element (e.g., intent, identity) with a clear chain of reasoning.
    - Show why alternatives are incomplete or less reliable.
    - Limit scope and propose a tailored instruction under FRE 105.
  - To oppose admission:
    - Show weak connection to a disputed fact or high risk of forbidden inferences.
    - Present less prejudicial alternatives that prove the same point.
    - Emphasize time, confusion, or cumulative proof concerns.

- Use limiting instructions (FRE 105)
  - Request an instruction that explains the narrow, valid use of the evidence and cautions against improper inferences.
  - Draft the instruction in plain terms and propose it in writing.

- Manage prior convictions (FRE 609) and prior acts (FRE 404(b))
  - For the proponent:
    - Identify a valid non-propensity purpose (motive, intent, identity, absence of mistake).
    - Provide notice for 404(b) when required and explain the chain of relevance.
    - Consider sanitizing details and limiting scope.
  - For the opponent:
    - Argue similarity to the charged act increases prejudice.
    - Show how the jury may use the evidence for the forbidden propensity inference.
    - Offer stipulations to remove the sting while preserving probative value.

- Handle visuals and demonstratives
  - Evaluate whether each image or clip adds unique, necessary information.
  - Reduce volume, crop images, obscure gore, or switch to diagrams if possible.
  - Be ready to show why the probative content cannot be conveyed in a less inflammatory way.

- Preserve the record (FRE 103)
  - Make a timely, specific objection.
  - If evidence is excluded, make an offer of proof outside the jury’s presence.
  - Request or oppose limiting instructions on the record.
  - Ask for a clear ruling that states the court’s reasoning when possible.

- Civil practice specifics
  - Causation and damages often invite 403 disputes: prior injuries, unrelated medical history, or financial details may confuse or bias the jury.
  - Propose careful time frames, expert-driven causation proof, and tailored redactions to keep the focus on the claimed defect or negligence.

- Criminal practice specifics
  - Be careful with prior bad acts and similar-act evidence; a strong 404(b) purpose is not enough if 403 problems remain.
  - Consider stipulations like in Old Chief to avoid exposing the jury to prejudicial details.
  - Prepare to argue necessity and specific relevance, not just general background.

## Summary Checklist

- Confirm relevance under FRE 401–402.
- Identify the 403 danger: unfair prejudice, confusion, misleading the jury, delay, waste, or cumulative proof.
- Weigh probative value against that danger; remember the “substantially outweighed” standard favors admission unless the risk is strong.
- Consider alternatives: stipulations, redactions, summaries, fewer exhibits, or sanitized language.
- Use or request limiting instructions under FRE 105.
- For prior acts and convictions, state the proper purpose and confront propensity risks head-on.
- For visuals, justify each item’s unique value and cut anything duplicative or inflammatory.
- Preserve objections and offers of proof to protect appellate rights.

## Quick Reference

| Rule/Concept         | Authority   | Key takeaway                                                                                   |
| -------------------- | ----------- | ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
| Relevance            | FRE 401–402 | Relevant evidence generally comes in unless a rule excludes it.                                |
| Rule 403             | FRE 403     | Exclude if probative value is substantially outweighed by unfair prejudice or related dangers. |
| Prior acts           | FRE 404(b)  | No propensity use; other purposes allowed, but still subject to 403.                           |
| Prior convictions    | FRE 609     | Impeachment by conviction is limited and balanced under 403.                                   |
| Limiting instruction | FRE 105     | Courts can admit evidence for a specific purpose with a cautionary instruction.                |
| Summaries            | FRE 1006    | Use summaries of voluminous records to reduce confusion and waste of time.                     |

Related terms to review:

- Probative value
- Misleading question
- Standard of proof
- Substantive evidence
- Overrule an objection

Prejudicial Evidence: Rule 403 Explained with Examples and Practical Tips