## Introduction

In U.S. estate law, lineal descendants are a person’s direct bloodline and legally adopted descendants—children, grandchildren, great-grandchildren, and so on. These are often called “issue” in wills and trusts. By contrast, collateral heirs are relatives from a side line, such as siblings, nieces and nephews, aunts and uncles, and cousins.

Why the distinction matters: If someone dies without a will (intestate), state law sets the order of who inherits. Most states put lineal descendants first. Only when there are no descendants (and sometimes no surviving spouse or parents) do collateral heirs inherit.

Because inheritance rules are set by each state, always confirm how your state defines “descendants,” who qualifies, and which distribution method applies.

## What You'll Learn

- What “lineal descendants” means and how it differs from collateral heirs
- Where the term “issue” appears in wills, trusts, and intestacy statutes
- Who counts as a descendant under state law (adopted children, stepchildren, children born outside marriage, posthumous and assisted reproduction cases)
- How property can be shared among descendants (per stirpes vs per capita)
- How intestate succession prioritizes heirs when there’s no will
- Practical steps to avoid disputes and make your estate plan clear
- When to review state-specific rules or seek legal advice

## Core Concepts

### Lineal Descendants vs Collateral Heirs

- Lineal descendants (issue): Direct bloodline or legally adopted descendants. Examples: child, grandchild, great-grandchild.
- Collateral heirs: Relatives who share a common ancestor but are not in your direct line. Examples: brother, sister, niece, nephew, cousin.
- Lineal ancestors: Parents and grandparents are in your direct line but are not descendants. They may inherit under intestacy if you leave no descendants, depending on state law.

Key takeaway: In intestacy, most states prioritize the surviving spouse and lineal descendants. If there are no descendants, parents (lineal ancestors) are often next in line, followed by collateral heirs.

### Who Counts as a Lineal Descendant

Rules vary by state, but these common categories apply:

- Adopted children: Generally treated the same as biological children for inheritance from the adoptive parent. Adoption may cut off inheritance from birth parents, with exceptions in some step-parent adoptions.
- Stepchildren: Usually not descendants unless legally adopted. If you want stepchildren to inherit, name them in your will or trust.
- Children born outside marriage: Most states allow inheritance once the legal parent–child relationship is established (e.g., acknowledgment, court order, DNA testing, or presumption under state statute).
- Posthumous children: A child conceived before death but born after generally inherits as if born during life. Children conceived after death through assisted reproduction may inherit only if state conditions are met (such as written consent and time limits).
- Half-blood relatives: Many states treat half-siblings the same as whole-blood siblings. A few states reduce half-blood shares.
- “Issue” vs “descendants”: Often used interchangeably, but documents should define the term. Clear definitions help prevent disputes and clarify whether adopted children, stepchildren, or children of assisted reproduction are included.

### Distribution Methods: Per Stirpes vs Per Capita

When a document or statute says property goes to “descendants,” the method of sharing can change outcomes:

- Per stirpes (by branch): Each branch of the family gets an equal share. If a child has died, that child’s share passes to his or her descendants.  
  Example: A has three children: B, C, and D. B died leaving two children. Under per stirpes, C gets 1/3, D gets 1/3, and B’s two children split B’s 1/3 (they each get 1/6).
- Per capita at each generation (UPC approach): Living members at the nearest generation share equally, and the remainder is pooled and shared equally by descendants at the next generation.  
  This approach can result in different shares than per stirpes when a generation has multiple branches and some members are deceased.

Tip for drafters: Don’t rely on default statutes. State your chosen method—“per stirpes” or “per capita at each generation”—in the document.

## Key Examples or Case Studies

- In re Estate of Johnson  
  Facts: The decedent died without a will. He had two living children and one predeceased child who left two children.  
  Ruling: The court distributed the estate to the surviving children and the grandchildren by representation, consistent with state intestacy laws.  
  Takeaway: Lineal descendants (including grandchildren standing in a deceased child’s place) inherit first under intestacy. The exact split depends on the state’s distribution method.

- Smith v. Smith  
  Facts: A dispute arose over whether stepchildren counted as lineal descendants for inheritance.  
  Ruling: The court held that, under the state statute, only biological and legally adopted children qualified as lineal descendants.  
  Takeaway: Stepchildren typically do not inherit under intestacy unless adopted or specifically named in estate documents.

- Scenario: Assisted reproduction and timing  
  Facts: A decedent left genetic material. A child was conceived after death.  
  Likely outcome: Many states require clear written consent from the decedent and impose time limits for birth to qualify for inheritance.  
  Takeaway: If assisted reproduction is a possibility, address it directly in your will or trust and follow state requirements.

## Practical Applications

For families and executors:

- Identify the class: List all potential descendants (children, adopted children, grandchildren) and determine who was living at the decedent’s death.
- Verify relationships: Collect birth certificates, adoption decrees, paternity orders, DNA results if needed, and any acknowledgments of parentage.
- Confirm state law: Check your state’s intestacy statute to see who inherits before collateral relatives and what distribution method applies.
- Watch for special cases: Stepchildren (not adopted) typically don’t inherit under intestacy; posthumous or assisted reproduction children may require proof that state conditions are met.
- Coordinate non-probate assets: Beneficiary designations on life insurance, retirement plans, and payable-on-death accounts control those assets, regardless of intestacy rules.

For estate planning:

- Define “descendants” clearly: State whether the term includes adopted children, stepchildren, children conceived via assisted reproduction, and children born outside marriage. If you want to include stepchildren, name them explicitly.
- Choose a distribution method: Say “per stirpes” or “per capita at each generation” to avoid confusion. Include a backup plan if a branch of the family has no descendants.
- Plan for minors: Consider trusts for young beneficiaries, naming trustees, setting ages for distributions, and addressing education and health needs.
- Address blended families: If you want to provide for a spouse and children from a prior relationship, detail the shares and timing (e.g., a trust for a spouse with remainder to children).
- Keep documents current: Update your will, trust, and beneficiary designations after marriage, divorce, birth, adoption, or death in the family.
- Reduce disputes: Use clear language, consider a no-contest clause where permitted, and communicate your wishes to key family members.

## Summary Checklist

- Know the difference between lineal descendants (issue) and collateral heirs
- Confirm who qualifies in your state: adopted, stepchildren, nonmarital, posthumous, assisted reproduction
- Decide and state a distribution method: per stirpes or per capita at each generation
- If there’s no will, follow your state’s intestacy order and gather documents to prove relationships
- Define “descendants” in your will or trust to match your family structure and goals
- Name stepchildren if you want them to inherit, or adopt where appropriate
- Coordinate beneficiary designations with your estate plan
- Revisit your plan after major life changes

## Quick Reference

| Relationship/Term                      | Usually Treated As                                       | Notes                                                               |
| -------------------------------------- | -------------------------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------- |
| Lineal descendant (issue)              | Direct descendant (child, grandchild)                    | Inherits before collateral heirs under intestacy                    |
| Collateral heir                        | Side-line relative (sibling, niece, cousin)              | Takes only if no descendants (and often no parents), per state law  |
| Adopted child                          | Same as biological child                                 | Adoption may sever rights from birth parents (exceptions may apply) |
| Stepchild (not adopted)                | Not a descendant under intestacy                         | Must be named in will/trust or legally adopted to inherit           |
| Child born outside marriage            | Descendant once parent–child relationship is established | Proof methods set by statute (acknowledgment, court order, DNA)     |
| Posthumous/assisted reproduction child | Sometimes a descendant, if conditions met                | Requires consent and timing compliance under state law              |

Lineal Descendants in U.S. Inheritance Law: Definitions, Rules, and Examples