## Facts

- Paolo Lo Duca, an Italian citizen living in New York, was convicted in Italy on narcotics-related charges arising from organized-crime activity.
- Italy requested Lo Duca’s extradition under the U.S.–Italy extradition treaty.
- A federal magistrate judge conducted an extradition proceeding under 18 U.S.C. § 3184, which authorizes a judicial officer to evaluate the request and, if the statutory and treaty requirements are met, certify extraditability to the Secretary of State.
- The magistrate judge found Lo Duca extraditable and certified that finding to the Secretary of State, who retains independent authority to decide whether to surrender the fugitive.
- Lo Duca filed a petition for a writ of habeas corpus in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of New York, contending that the extradition statute was unconstitutional.
- Lo Duca argued that § 3184 violates separation of powers because it permits the Executive Branch (through the Secretary of State) to effectively revise a judicial determination.
- In the alternative, Lo Duca argued that if the judicial officer in extradition is not exercising Article III power, then § 3184 improperly authorizes federal judges to perform non-Article III tasks without a valid source of executive appointment or authority.
- Lo Duca also challenged whether the charged Italian offenses satisfied the treaty’s dual-criminality requirement and raised additional objections to the extradition process.
- The district court dismissed/denied habeas relief, and Lo Duca appealed to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit.

## Issues

1. Does 18 U.S.C. § 3184 violate separation of powers by allowing the Secretary of State to make the final surrender decision after a judicial officer has certified extraditability?
2. If an extradition certification under § 3184 is not an exercise of Article III judicial power, does the statute unconstitutionally authorize federal judicial officers to perform non-Article III functions without proper authority?
3. Did the offenses supporting Italy’s request satisfy the treaty’s dual-criminality requirement, and were Lo Duca’s other procedural objections preserved for review?

## Decision

- The Second Circuit (Newman, C.J.) held that 18 U.S.C. § 3184 is constitutional and does not offend separation of powers.
- The court treated the judicial officer’s role in extradition as a limited, non-final function: the officer determines whether the legal and evidentiary prerequisites for extradition are met and then certifies that determination, while the Secretary of State makes the separate diplomatic and policy decision whether to surrender the individual.
- The court rejected Lo Duca’s alternative constitutional theory that § 3184 improperly assigns federal judges an unauthorized non-Article III role.
- The court concluded that the treaty’s dual-criminality requirement was satisfied for the conduct at issue.
- The court found that many procedural objections to the extradition proceeding were waived because they were not properly raised at the extradition hearing.
- The Second Circuit affirmed the district court’s judgment denying/dismissing Lo Duca’s habeas petition, leaving the certification of extraditability in place and the surrender decision to the Secretary of State.

## Legal Principles

- Extradition under 18 U.S.C. § 3184 involves a judicial officer’s preliminary determination (including probable cause and treaty coverage) and a separate executive decision on surrender; the latter is not a “revision” of a final Article III judgment.
- A separation-of-powers challenge fails where the judicial officer’s extradition certification is not a final adjudication of guilt or a binding judgment, but a prerequisite certification within a process that reserves the surrender decision to the Executive Branch.
- Dual criminality does not require identical statutory elements in the two countries; it is enough that the underlying conduct is punishable under the laws of both nations.
- In extradition-related habeas litigation, courts generally review only limited matters tied to the legality of the certification (such as jurisdiction, treaty applicability, and evidentiary sufficiency), not a full merits retrial of the foreign prosecution.
- Objections to the conduct of an extradition hearing may be forfeited if not timely raised before the judicial officer conducting the extradition proceeding.

## Conclusion

Lo Duca challenged his certification for extradition to Italy by attacking the constitutionality of § 3184 and disputing treaty requirements, but the Second Circuit held that the statute’s division of labor—judicial certification followed by an independent executive surrender decision—does not violate separation of powers, found the dual-criminality requirement satisfied, treated many procedural objections as waived, and affirmed the denial of habeas relief.


Lo Duca v. United States, 93 F.3d 1100 (1996)